•NRLF 


B    3    301    Ifl2 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


BIOLOGY 
LIBRARY 

6  Class 


FIELD 


ORNITHOLOGY 


COMPRISING  A 


MANUAL  OF  INSTRUCTION1 


PROCURING,  PREPARING  AND  PRESERVING  BIRDS 


Check  List  of  North  Americaij  Birds. 


BY 


DR.   ELLIOTT   COUES,   U.S.A. 


SALEM : 
NATURALISTS'    AGENCY. 

BOSTON:    ESTES  &  LAFRIAT. 
NEW  YORK  :  DODD  &  MEAD. 

1874. 


PKINTKD   AT 

THE    SALEM    I'  R  E  8  S . 
F   W.  PUTNAM  &  Co., 

Proprietors. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by 

F.  W.  PUTNAM  AND  ELLIOTT  COUES, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


CONTENTS 


Page. 
PRELIMINARY  AND  EXPLANATORY, 1 

CHAPTER  I.  IMPLEMENTS  FOR  COLLECTING  AND  THEIR  USE,  .  .  5 
§1.  THE  DOUBLE-BARRELLED  SHOT  GUN,  5.— §2.  BREECH  LOADER.  6.— 
§3.  OTHER  WEAPONS,  ETC.,  7.  — §4.  AMMUNITION,  8.  — §5.  OTHER 
EQUIPMENTS.  10.  — §6.  QUALIFICATIONS  FOR  SUCCESS,  12.  —  §7.  To 
CARRY  A  GUN,  12.— §8.  To  CLEAN  A  GUN,  13.— §0.  To  LOAD  A  GUN, 
14.— §10.  To  SHOOT,  16. 

CHAPTER  II.    DOGS, ....     19 

§11.  A  GOOD  DOG,  How  USEFUL,  19. 

CHAPTER  III.      VARIOUS  DIRECTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS  FOR 

FIELD  WORK, 21 

§12.  To  BE  A  GOOD  COLLECTOR,  21.  — §13,  14,  15,  16.  BIRDS,  How, 
WHERE  AND  WHEN  SOUGHT,  21,  22,  25.— §17.  How  MANY  OF  A  KIND 
WANTED,  AND  WHY,  27.  — §18.  WHAT  is  A  GOOD  DAY'S  WORK?  30. 
—§19.  APPROACHING  BIRDS,  30.— §20.  RECOVERING  BIRDS,  33.—  §21. 
KILLING  WOUNDED  BIRDS,  33.— §22.  HANDLING  BLEEDING  BIRDS, 
35.— §23.  CARRYING  BIRDS  HOME  SAFE,  36.— §24.  A  SPECIAL  CASE, 
37.— §25.  HYGIENE  OF  COLLECTORSHIP,  37. 

CHAPTER  IV.    REGISTRATION  AND  LABELLING, 44 

§26,  27.  RECORD  OF  OBSERVATIONS,  44.— §28.  ORNITHOLOGICAL  BOOK- 
KEEPING, 45.— §29.  LABELLING,  46.— §30.  DIRECTIONS  FOR  MEASURE- 
MENT, 49. 

CHAPTER  V.      INSTRUMENTS,   MATERIALS   AND    FIXTURES  FOR 

PREPARING  BIRDSKIXS, 52 

§31.  INSTRUMENTS,  52.— §32.  MATERIALS,  53.— §33.  INDEPENDENT  PAR- 
AGRAPH, 56.— §34.  FIXTURES,  56.— §35.  QUERY,  57. 

(ill) 


216971 


IV                                                    CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER  VI.    How  TO  MAKE  A  BIRDSKIN, 58 

A.  The  Regular  Process  (§36),  58  —  B.  Special  Processes;  Complications 
and  Accidents  (§ZT),  70.  —  §38.  SIZE,  70.— §39.  SHAPE,  73.  — §40.  THIN 
SKIN;  LOOSE  PLUMAGE,  75.— §41.  FATNESS,  75.— §42.  BLOOD-STAINS, 
ETC.,  77.  — §43.  MUTILATION,  79.  — §44.  DECOMPOSITION,  80.  — §45. 
How  TO  MOUNT  BIRDS,  82. 

CHAPTER  VII.    MISCELLANEOUS  PARTICULARS, 93 

§46.  DETERMINATION  OF  SEX,  93.— §47.  EECOGNITION  OF  AGE,  94.— §48. 
EXAMINATION  OF  STOMACH,  95.— §49.  RESTORATION  OF  POOR  SKINS, 
96.— §50.  MUMMIFICATION,  97.— §51.  WET  PREPARATIONS,  97.  —  §52. 
OSTEOLOGICAL  PREPARATIONS,  98.— §53.  NESTS  AND  EGGS,  100. 

CHAPTER  VIII.     CARE  OF  A  COLLECTION, 106 

§54.  WELL  PRESERVED  SPECIMENS,  106.— §55.  INSECT  PESTS,  106.— §56. 
CASES  FOR  STORAGE  OR  TRANSPORTATION,  107.— §57.  CABINETS,  108. 
—§58.  To  DESTROY  BUGS,  110.— §59.  Two  ITEMS,  111. 
APPENDIX,  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS, 113 


CHECK  LIST. 


LIST  OF  BIRDS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA,       1 

EXTINCT  SPECIES, 119 

APPENDIX,  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS, .123 


MANUAL  OF  INSTRUCTION 


CHECK  LIST  OF  THE  BIRDS  OP  NORTH  AMERICA, 


PRELIMINARY     AND     EXPLANATORY. 

BOTH  author  and  publisher  of  the  "Key  to  North  American 
Birds"  intended  that  the  work  should  contain  instructions  for 
collecting  and  preparing  birds,  and  that  a  CHECK  LIST,  accord- 
ing with  the  author's  views,  should  appear  simultaneously  with 
the  volume.  This  proved  impracticable :  partly  because  the 
work  so  far  overran  the  original  estimates,  that  the  additional 
expense  and  risk,  which  the  publisher,  an  accomplished  natu- 
ralist, generously  offered  to  assume,  seemed  to  the  author 
unjustifiable  ;  and  partly  because  the  writer's  unexpected  call 
to  another  field  of  official  duty  suddenly  threw  such  a  pressure 
of  other  engagements  upon  his  hands  that  he  could  not  just 
then  find  time  to  write  out  even  so  slight  a  treatise  as  this. 
The  CHECK  LIST  and  MANUAL  OF  INSTRUCTION  are  therefore 
now  presented  together,  as  a  Supplement  to  the  Key. 

The  demand  for  a  new  CHECK  LIST  has  become  urgent.  The 
last  one  published,  and  only  one  now  in  use,  expresses  a 
former  state  of  American  ornithology.  That  great  changes — 
presumably  for  the  better — have  lately  been  made,  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that,  in  round  numbers,  fifty  species  have  been 


2  EXPLANATORY. 

since  ascertained  to  inhabit  North  America,  while  one  hundred 
and  fifty  have  been  removed  from  the  former  list  as  being 
extralimital,  invalid  or  otherwise  untenable.  Of  whatever 
part  the  author  may  have  taken  in  remodelling  the  list,  it 
would  be  obviously  indelicate  to  speak.  But  he  cannot  refrain 
from  alluding  to  the  signal  services  of  reform  rendered  by  Mr. 
Allen,  of  Cambridge,  whose  stanch  advocacy,  under  circum- 
stances that  might  have  excused  flinching,  did  so  much  to 
precipitate  the  changes,  long  while  progressing  and  inevi- 
table, for  which  the  time  was  at  length  at  hand.  Nor  would 
this  allusion  be  entirely  just,  did  he  not  in  the  same  connection 
refer  to  the  thorough  revision  now  making  by  Prof.  Baird  him- 
self, with  the  cooperation  of  Dr.  Brewer  and  Mr.  Ridgway,  the 
results  of  which  are  about  to  appear  in  what  promises  to  be 
one  of  the  greatest  monuments  ever  erected  to  American 
ornithology.  The  notable  concordance  of  the  several  writings 
in  question,  an  agreement  the  more  gratifying  because  a  short 
time  since  it  might  have  been  considered  impossible,  marks  an 
important  period  in  the  history  of  the  science.  The  outlook 
promises  well,  when  different  premises  lead  up  to  the  same 
conclusions,  and  conflicting  views  are  reconciled. 

The  present  CHECK  LIST,  prepared  in  strict  accordance  with 
the  KEY,  reflects  exactly  whatever  of  truth  or  error  that 
work  represents.  The  typography  and  press  work  render  it 
susceptible  of  use  in  labelling  a  collection.*  It  shows  mainly 
three  points  of  disagreement  with  the  current  Smithsonian 
List.  The  number  of  genera  is  reduced  though  not  to  the  extent 
that  may  be  desirable.  It  is  perhaps  to  be  regretted,  that  so 
many  needless  and  burdensome  generic  names,  for  which 
Bonaparte,  Cabanis,  Kaup  and  Reichenbach  are  largely  re- 

*For  this  purpose  the  LIST  will  be  issued  as  a  pamphlet  by  itself  as  well 
as  forming  part  of  this  little  volume. 


EXPLANATORY.  6 

sponsible,  were  adopted  in  Prof.  Baird's  great  work;*  for, 
sanctioned  by  the  usage  of  such  eminent  authority,  they  have 
passed  current,  and  are  too  closely  ingrained  in  our  nomen- 
clature to  be  soon  eradicated.  The  writer  feels  at  liberty 
to  speak  plainly,  for  his  own  skirts  are  not  clear.  Secondly, 
not  a  few  species,  new  to  North  America,  or  to  science,  or 
both,  have  of  late  years  been  ascertained  to  inhabit  this  country. 
The  third  and  principal  variance  between  the  present  CHECK 
LIST  and  its  predecessor  results  from  a  large  reduction  of  the 
number  of  admitted  species.  Part  of  them  are  excluded  sim- 
ply because  extralimital ;  but  most  because  they  are  considered 
untenable  as  species.  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge, 
and  under  a  system  of  nomenclature  that  is  proven  inadequate 
and  may  before  long  become  obsolete,  recognition  of  numerous 
"Varieties" — resultant  modifications  of  species  by  physical 
conditions  of  environment — is  imperative  ;  and  what  are  these 
varieties  but  the  rills  that  flow  into  and  help  to  swell  the  mighty 
stream  of  descent  with  modification? 

The  Instructions  for  Collecting  and  Taxidermy,  herewith 
offered,  are  drawn  almost  entirely  from  the  writer's  experience, 
acquired  during  several  years  he  has  spent,  with  little  interrup- 
tion, in  the  study  of  our  birds.  He  has  collected  over  a  wide 
area  from  Labrador  to  California,  in  northwestern  territories, 
and  in  several  southern  states ;  enjoying  opportunities  for 
field  investigations  that  no  one  with  the  least  taste  or  aptitude 
for  the  pursuit  could  fail  to  profit  by.  In  the  matter  of  col- 
lecting, therefore,  he  may  reasonably  venture  to  speak  with 
confidence.  Since,  furthermore,  a  taxidermal  process  that  has 
been  repeated  several  thousand  times  with  fair  results  is  by 
this  simple  circumstance  proven  satisfactory,  he  feels  no  diffi- 

* "  Birds  of  North  America "  by  Baird,  Cassin  and  Lawrence. 


4  EXPLANATORY. 

dence  in  presenting  his  metftod  as  a  model  to  be  followed  in 
the  absence  of  a  better  one.  The  Instructions  will,  it  is  be- 
lieved, enable  any  one  to  become  reasonably  proficient  in  certain 
of  the  indispensable  qualifications  of  a  good  working  ornithol- 
ogist. He  intends  to  take  what  may  or  may  not  be  a  liberty, 
and  to  presume  that  the  reader  is  entirely  inexperienced  in 
field- work  j  and  he  begs  the  further  privilege  of  waiving 
formality,  that  he  may  be  allowed  to  address  the  reader  very 
familiarly,  much  as  if  chatting  with  a  friend  on  a  subject  of 
mutual  interest. 


Bendire's  Mocking-thrush,  Harporliynchus  Bendirei  Coues. 
See  American  Naturalist  for  June,  1873,  vol.  vii,  p.  330. 


MANUAL  OF   T 


ANUAL    OF       NSTRUCTION, 


CHAPTER  I. 

IMPLEMENTS  FOR  COLLECTING,  AND  THEIR  USE. 

§1.  THE  DOUBLE-BARRELLED  SHOT  GUN  is  your  main  reliance. 
Under  some  circumstances  you  may  trap  or  snare  birds,  catch 
them  with  bird-lime,  or  use  other  devices ;  but  such  cases 
are  exceptions  to  the  rule  that  you  will  shoot  birds,  and  for 
this  purpose  no  weapon  compares  with  the  one  just  mentioned. 
The  soul  of  good  advice  respecting  the  selection  of  a  gun,  is, 
get  the  best  one  you  can  afford  to  buy ;  go  the  full  length  of  your 
purse  in  the  matters  of  material  and  workmanship.  To  say 
nothing  of  the  prime  requisite,  safety,  or  of  the  next  most 
desirable  quality,  efficiency,  the  durability  of  a  high-priced 
gun  makes  it  cheapest  in  the  end.  Style  of  finish  is  obviously 
of  little  consequence,  except  as  an  index  of  other  qualities ; 
for  inferior  guns  rarely,  if  ever,  display  the  exquisite  appoint- 
ments that  mark  a  first-rate  arm.  There  is  really  so  little 
choice  among  good  guns  that  nothing  need  be  said  on  this 
score  ;  you  cannot  miss  it  if  you  pay  enough  to  any  reputable 
maker  or  reliable  dealer.  But  collecting  is  a  specialty,  and 
some  guns  are  better  adapted  than  others  to  your  particular 
purpose,  which  is  the  destruction,  as  a  rule,  of  small  birds,  at 
moderate  range,  with  the  least  possible  injury  to  their  plumage. 
Probably  three-fourths  or  more  of  the  birds  of  a  miscellaneous 
collection  average  under  the  size  of  a  pigeon,  and  were  shot 
within  thirty  yards.  A  heavy  gun  is  therefore  unnecessary,  in 
fact  ineligible,  the  extra  weight  being  useless.  You  will  find 
a  gun  of  7j  to  8  pounds  weight  most  suitable.  For  similar 

(5) 


6          IMPLEMENTS   FOR   COLLECTING,  AND   THEIK    USE. 

reasons  the  bore  should  be  small ;  I  prefer  14  gauge,  and 
should  not  think -of  going  over  12.  To  judge  from  the  best 
sporting  authorities,  length  of  barrel  is  of  less  consequence 
than  many  suppose  ;  for  myself,  I  incline  to  a  rather  long  bar- 
rel —  one  nearer  33  than  28  inches  —  believing  that  such  a 
barrel  may  throw  shot  closer ;  but  I  am  not  sure  that  this  is 
even  the  rule,  while  it  is  well  known  that  several  circumstances 
of  loading,  besides  some  almost  inappreciable  differences  in 
barrels,  will  cause  guns  apparently  exactly  alike  to  throw  shot 
differently.  Length  and  crook  of  stock  should  of  course  be 
adapted  to  your  figure — a  gun  may  be  made  to  fit  you,  as  well 
as  a  coat.  For  wild-fowl  shooting,  and  on  some  other  special 
occasions,  a  heavier  and  altogether  more  powerful  gun  will  be 
preferable. 

§2.  BREECH-LOADER  vs.  muzzle-loader,  a  case  long  argued, 
may  be  considered  settled  in  favor  of  the  former.  Provided 
the  mechanism  and  workmanship  of  the  breech  be  what  they 
should  there  are  no  valid  objections  to  offset  obvious  advan- 
tages, some  of  which  are  these  :  ease  and  rapidity  of  loading, 
and  consequently  delivery  of  shots  in  quick  succession ;  facil- 
ity of  cleaning ;  compactness  and  portability  of  ammunition  ; 
readiness  with  which  different  sized  shot  may  be  used.  This 
last  is  highly  important  to  the  collector,  who  never  knows 
the  moment  he  may  wish  to  fire  at  a  very  different  bird  from 
such  as  he  has  already  loaded  for.  The  muzzle-loader  must 
always  contain  the  fine  shot  with  which  nine-tenths  of  your 
specimens  will  be  secured  ;  if  in  both  barrels,  you  cannot  deal 
with  a  hawk  or  other  large  bird  with  reasonable  prospects  of 
success ;  if  in  only  one  barrel,  the  other  being  more  heavily 
charged,  you  are  crippled  to  the  extent  of  exactly  one-half  of 
your  resources  for  ordinary  shooting.  Whereas,  with  the 
breech-loader  you  will  habitually  use  mustard-seed  in  both 
barrels,  and  yet  can  slip  in  a  different  shell  in  time  to  seize 
most  opportunities  requiring  large  shot.  This  consideration 
alone  should  decide  the  case.  But,  moreover,  the  time  spent 
in  the  field  in  loading  an  ordinary  gun  is  no  small  item  ;  while 


GUXS   AND   OTHER  WEAPONS.  7 

cartridges  may  be  charged  in  your  leisure  at  home.  This  should 
become  the  natural  occupation  of  your  spare  moments.  No 
time  is  really  gained;  you  simply  change  to  advantage  the  time 
consumed.  Metal  shells,  charged  with  loose  ammunition,  and 
susceptible  of  being  reloaded  many  times,  are  preferable  to 
paper  cartridges,  even  such  as  you  load  yourself,  and  are  far 
more  eligible  than  any  special  fixed  ammunition  which,  once 
exhausted  in  a  distant  place,  and  circumstances  may  upset 
the  best  calculations  on  that  score,  leaves  the  gun  useless. 
On  charging  the  shells  mark  the  number  of  the  shot  used  on 
the  outside  wad ;  or  better,  use  colored  wads,  say  plain  white 
for  dust  shot,  and  red,  blue  and  green  for  certain  other  sizes. 
If  going  far  away  take  as  many  shells  as  you  think  can  possi- 
bly be  wanted  and  then  add  a  few  more. 

§3.  OTHER  WEAPONS,  ETC.  An  ordinary  single-barrel  gun 
will  of  course  answer  but  is  a  sorry  makeshift,  for  it  is  some- 
times so  poorly  constructed  as  to  be  unsafe,*  and  can  at  best  be 
only  just  half  as  effective.  The  cane-gun  should  be  mentioned 
in  this  connection.  It  is  a  single-barrel,  lacquered  to  look  like 
a  stick,  with  a  brass  stopper  at  the  muzzle  to  imitate  a  ferule, 
counter-sunk  hammer  and  trigger,  and  either  a  simple  curved 
handle,  or  a  light  gunstock-shaped  piece  that  screws  in.  The 
affair  is  easily  mistaken  for  a  cane.  Some  have  acquired  con- 
siderable dexterity  in  its  use ;  my  own  experience  with  it  is 
very  limited  and  unsatisfactory ;  the  handle  always  hit  me  in 
the  face,  and  I  generally  missed  my  bird.  It  has  only  two 
recommendations.  If  you  approve  of  shooting  on  Sunday 
and  yet  scruple  to  shock  popular  prejudice,  you  can  slip  out 
of  town  unsuspected.  If  you  are  shooting  where  the  law 
forbids  destruction  of  small  birds — a  wise  and  good  law  that 
you  may  sometimes  be  inclined  to  defy — artfully  careless 
handling  of  the  deceitful  implement  may  prevent  arrest  and 
fine.  A  blow-gun  is  sometimes  used.  It  is  a  long  slender  tube 
of  wood,  metal  or  glass,  through  which  clay -balls,  tiny  arrows, 

*This  remark  does  not  apply  to  any  of  the  fine  single-barrelled  breech-loaders 
now  made. 


8          IMPLEMENTS   FOE   COLLECTING,  AND   THEIR   USE. 

etc.,  are  projected  by  force  of  the  breath.  It  must  be  quite  an 
art  to  use  such  a  weapon  successfully,  and  its  employment  is 
necessarily  exceptional.  Some  uncivilized  tribes  are  said  to 
possess  marvellous  skill  in  the  use  of  long  bamboo  blow-guns  ; 
and  such  people  are  often  valuable  employes  of  the  collector. 
I  have  had  no  experience  with  the  noiseless  air-gun,  which  is, 
in  effect,  a  modified  blow-gun,  compressed  air  being  the  explo- 
sive power.  Nor  can  I  say  much  of  various  methods  of  trap- 
ping birds  that  may  be  practised.  On  these  points  I  must  leave 
you  to  your  own  devices,  with  the  remark  that  horse-hair 
snares,  set  over  a  nest,  are  often  of  great  service  in  securing 
the  parent  of  eggs  that  might  otherwise  remain  unidentified. 
I  have  no  practical  knowledge  of  bird-lime;  I  believe  it  is 
seldom  used  in  this  country.  A  method  of  netting  birds  alive, 
which  I  have  tried,  is  both  easy  and  successful.  A  net  of  fine 
green  silk,  some  8  or  10  feet  square,  is  stretched  perpendicu- 
larly across  a  narrow  part  of  one  of  the  tiny  brooks,  over- 
grown with  briers  and  shrubbery,  that  intersect  many  of  our 
meadows.  Retreating  to  a  distance  the  collector  beats  along 
the  shrubbery  making  all  the  noise  he  can,  urging  on  the  little 
birds  till  they  reach  the  almost  invisible  net  and  become  en- 
tangled in  trying  to  fly  through.  I  have  in  this  manner  taken 
a.  dozen  sparrows  and  the  like  at  one  "drive."  But  the  gun 
can  rarely  be  laid  aside  for  this  or  any  similar  device. 

§4.  AMMUNITION.  The  best  powder  is  that  combining 
strength  and  cleanliness  in  the  highest  compatible  degree.  In 
some  brands  too  much  of  the  latter  is  sacrificed  to  the  former. 
Other  things  being  equal,  a  rather  coarse  powder  is  preferable, 
since  its  slower  action  tends  to  throw  shot  closer.  Some  num- 
bers are  said  to  be  "too  quick"  for  fine  breech-loaders.  In- 
experienced sportsmen  and  collectors  almost  invariably  use 
too  coarse  shot.  When  unnecessarily  large,  two  evils  result : 
the  number  of  pellets  in  a  load  is  decreased,  the  chances  of 
killing  being  correspondingly  lessened  ;  and  the  plumage  is 
unnecessarily  injured,  either  by  direct  mutilation,  or  by  subse- 
quent bleeding  through  large  holes.  As  already  hinted,  shot 


POWDER,  SHOT   AND   WADS. 

cannot  be  too  fine  for  your  routine  collecting.  Use  "mustard- 
seed,"  or  "dust-shot,"  as  it  is  variously  called;  it  is  smaller 
than  any  of  the  sizes  usually  numbered.  As  the  very  finest 
can  only  be  procured  in  cities,  provide  yourself  liberally  on 
leaving  any  centre  of  civilization  for  even  a  country  village, 
to  say  nothing  of  remote  regions.  A  small  bird  that  would 
have  been  torn  to  pieces  by  a  few  large  pellets,  may  be  riddled 
with  mustard-seed  and  yet  be  preservable  ;  moreover,  there  is, 
as  a  rule,  little  or  no  bleeding  from  these  minute  holes,  which 
close  up  by  the  elasticity  of  the  tissues  involved.  It  is  aston- 
ishing what  large  birds  may  be  brought  down  with  the  tiny 
pellets.  I  have  killed  hawks  with  such  shot,  knocked  over  a 
wood  ibis  at  forty  yards  and  once  shot  a  wolf  dead  with  No. 
10,  though  I  am  bound  to  say  the  animal  was  within  a  few  feet 
of  me.  After  dust-shot,  and  the  nearest  number  or  two,  No. 
8  or  7  will  be  found  most  useful.  Waterfowl,  thick-skinned 
sea  birds  like  loons,  cormorants  and  pelicans,  and  a  few  of  the 
largest  land  birds,  require  heavier  shot.  I  have  had  no  ex- 
perience with  the  substitution  of  fine  gravel  or  sand,  much  less 
water,  as  a  projectile  ;  besides  shot  I  never  fired  anything  at  a 
bird  except  my  ramrod,  on  one  or  two  occasions,  when  I  never 
afterwards  saw  either  the  bird  or  the  stick.  The  comparatively 
trivial  matter  of  caps  will  repay .  attention.  Breech-loaders 
not  discharged  with  a  pin  take  a  particular  style  of  short  cap 
called  a  "primer;"  for  other  guns  the  best  water-proof  lined 
caps  will  prevent  anno}Tance  and  disappointment  in  wet  weather, 
and  may  save  }TOU  an  eye,  for  they  only  split  when  exploded  ; 
whereas,  the  flimsy  cheap  ones — that  "GD"  trash,  for  in- 
stance, sold  in  the  corner  grocery  at  ten  cents  a  hundred 
—  usually  fly  to  pieces.  Moreover,  the  top  of  such  a  cap  is 
sometimes  driven  into  the  nipple.  Using  Ely's  caps,  I  shot  a 
whole  season  in  the  fog  and  rain  of  Labrador,  without  a  single 
miss-fire,  though  my  gun  was  sometimes  dripping.  Cut  felt 
wads  are  the  onty  suitable  article.  Ely's  "  chemically  prepared  " 
wadding  is  the  best.  It  is  well,  when  using  plain  wads,  occa- 
sionally to  drive  a  greased  one  through  the  barrel.  Since  you 
may  sometimes  run  out  of  wads  through  an  unexpected  contin- 


10   IMPLEMENTS  FOR  COLLECTING,  AND  THEIR  USE. 

gency,  always  keep  a  wad-cutter  to  fit  your  gun.  You  can 
make  serviceable  wads  of  pasteboard,  but  they  are  far  inferior 
to  felt.  Cut  them  on  the  flat  sawn  end  of  a  stick  of  fire- 
wood ;  the  side  of  a  plank  does  not  do  very  well.  Use  a 
wooden  mallet,  instead  of  a  hammer  or  hatchet,  and  so  save 
your  cutter.  Soft  paper  is  next  best  after  wads  ;  I  have  never 
used  rags,  cotton  or  tow,  fearing  these  tinder-like  substances 
might  leave  a  spark  in  the  barrels.  Crumbled  leaves  or  grass 
will  answer  at  a  pinch.  I  have  occasion  alty,  in  a  desperate 
hurry,  loaded  and  killed  without  any  wadding. 

§5.  OTHER  EQUIPMENTS.*  a.  For  the  gun.  A  gun-case  will 
come  cheap  in  the  end,  especially  if  you  travel  much.  The 
usual  box,  divided  into  compartments,  and  well  lined,  is  the 
best,  though  the  full  length  leather  or  india-rubber  cloth  case 
answers  very  well.  The  box  should  contain  a  small  kit  of 
tools,  such  as  mainspring-vise,  nipple-wrench,  screw-driver, 
etc.  A  stout  hard- wood  cleaning  rod,  with  wormer,  will  be 
required.  It  is  always  safe  to  have  parts  of  the  gun  lock, 
especially  mainspring,  in  duplicate.  For  muzzle-loaders  extra 
nipples  and  extra  ramrod  heads  and  tips  often  come  into  use. 
For  breech-loaders  the  apparatus  for  charging  the  shells  is  so 
useful  as  to  be  practically  indispensable,  b.  For  ammunition. 
Metal  shells  or  paper  cartridges  may  be  carried  loose  in  the 
large  lower  coat  pocket,  or  in  a  leathern  satchel.  There  is 
said  to  be  a  chance  of  explosion  by  some  unlucky  blow,  where 
they  are  so  carried,  but  I  never  knew  of  an  instance.  Another 
way  is  to  fix  them  separately  in  a  row  in  snug  loops  of  soft 
leather  sewn  continuously  along  a  stout  waist-belt ;  or  in  sev- 
eral such  horizontal  rows  on  a  square  piece  of  thick  leather,  to 
be  slung  by  a  strap  over  the  shoulder.  The  appliances  for  loose 
ammunition  are  almost  endlessly  varied,  so  every  one  may  con- 

*  Parker  Brothers,  West  Meriden,  Conn.,  publish  a  pamphlet  which  I  should 
advise  you  to  get.  I  suppose  it  would  be  mailed  on  application.  It  i?  of  course 
entirely  in  the  business  interest  of  the  Parker  gun,  but  gives  many  useful  hints  ol 
general  practical  applicability,  respecting  the  appliances  for  guns  and  ammu- 
nition. There  is  a  good  deal  of  apparatus  that  I  pass  over  as  not  being  indispen- 
sable, but  which  you  might  find  convenient. 


APPARATUS . CLOTHING .  1 1 

suit  his  taste  or  convenience.  The  shot-pouch  I  had  settled 
upon  before  using  a  breech-loader,  as  the  most  satisfactory  is 
the  "double-barrelled"  one,  so  to  speak,  that  buckles  round 
the  waist,  and  is  further  supported  by  shoulder-straps  crossing 
on  the  back  exactly  like  a  pair  of  suspenders.  This  so  fixes 
and  distributes  the  weight  that  it  is  carried  with  the  least 
fatigue ;  I  think  it  far  preferable  to  the  pear-shaped  hand 
pouches  dangling  by  a  cord.  Since  it  cannot  be  raised  to  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun,  and  since  moreover  mustard-seed  will  easily 
slip  through  the  openings  for  the  slides  of  the  ordinary  lever 
arrangement  for  measuring  the  charge  of  shot,  the  nozzle  of 
the  pouch  should  have  a  thimble  for  the  same  purpose.  The 
rule  of  loading  being  bulk  for  bulk  of  powder  and  shot  it  is 
often  convenient  to  carry  mustard-seed  in  a  powder-flask  ;  the 
slide  works  readily  through  fine  shot  to  cut  off  a  charge,  though 
it  will  not  do  so  with  coarser.  Caps  are  most  conveniently 
carried  loose  in  a  right-hand  vest  pocket,  or  fob  on  the  outside 
of  the  coat ;  wads  in  a  lower  right-hand  pocket,  c.  For  speci- 
mens. You  must  always  carry  paper  in  which  to  wrap  up  your 
specimens,  as  more  particularly  directed  beyond.  Nothing  is 
better  for  this  purpose  than  writing-paper  ;  "  rejected  "  or  other- 
wise useless  MSS.  may  thus  be  utilized.  The  ordinary  game 
bag,  with  leather  back  and  network  front,  answers  very  well ; 
but  a  light  basket,  fitting  the  body,  such  as  is  used  by  fisher- 
men, is  the  best  thing  to  carry  specimens  in.  Avoid  putting 
specimens  into  pockets,  unless  you  have  your  coat  tail 
largely  excavated :  crowding  them  into  a  close  pocket,  where 
they  press  each  other,  and  receive  warmth  from  the  person, 
will  injure  them.  It  is  always  well  to  take  a  little  cotton  into 
the  field,  to  plug  up  shot-holes,  mouth,  nostrils  or  vent, 
immediately,  if  required,  d.  For  yourself.  The  indications  to 
be  fulfilled  in  your  clothing  are  these  :  Adaptability  to  the 
weather ;  and  since  a  shooting  coat  is  not  conveniently 
changed,  while  an  overcoat  is  ordinarily  ineligible,  the  require- 
ment is  best  met  by  different  underclothes.  Easy  fit,  allowing 
perfect  freedom  of  muscular  action,  especially  of  the  arms. 
Strength  of  fabric,  to  resist  briers  and  stand  wear  ;  velveteen 


12       IMPLEMENTS    FOB    COLLECTING,  AND    THEIR    USE. 

and  corduroy  are  excellent  materials.  Subdued  color,  to  render 
you  as  inconspicuous  as  possible,  and  to  show  dirt  the  least. 
Multiplicity  of  pockets  —  a  perfect  shooting-coat  is  an  inge- 
nious system  of  hanging  pouches  about  the  person.  Broad 
soled,  low  heeled  boots  or  shoes,  giving  a  firm  tread  even  when 
wet.  Close-fitting  cap  with  prominent  visor,  or  low  soft  felt 
hat,  rather  broad  brimmed.  Let  india-rubber  goods  alone ; 
the  field  is  no  place  for  a  sweat-bath. 

§6.  QUALIFICATIONS  FOR  SUCCESS.  With  the  outfit  just 
indicated  you  command  all  the  required  appliances  that  you 
can  buy,  and  the  rest  lies  with  yourself.  Success  hangs  upon 
your  own  exertions  ;  upon  your  energy,  industry  and  persever- 
ance ;  your  knowledge  and  skill ;  your  zeal  and  enthusiasm, 
in  collecting  birds,  much  as  in  other  affairs  of  life.  But 
that  your  efforts  —  maiden  attempts  they  must  once  have  been 
if  they  be  not  such  now — may  be  directed  to  best  advantage, 
further  instructions  may  not  be  unacceptable. 

§7.  To  CARRY  A  GUN  without  peril  to  human  life  or  limb  is 
the  a  b  c  of  its  use.  "There's  death  in  the  pot."  Suclr  con- 
stant care  is  required  to  avoid  accidents  that  no  man  can  give 
it  by  continual  voluntary  efforts ;  safe  carriage  of  the  gun 
must  become  an  unconscious  habit,  fixed  as  the  movements  of 
an  automaton.  The  golden  rule  and  whole  secret  is  :  the  muz- 
zle must  never  sweep  the  horizon;  accidental  discharge  should 
send  the  shot  into  the  ground  before  your  feet,  or  away  up  in 
the  air.  There  are  several  safe  and  easy  ways  of  holding  a 
piece :  they  will  be  employed  by  turns  to  relieve  particular 
muscles  when  fatigued.  1.  Hold  it  in  the  hollow  of  the  arm 
(preferably  the  left,  as  you  can  recover  to  aim  in  less  time  than 
from  the  right),  across  the  front  of  }7our  person,  the  hand  on 
the  grip,  the  muzzle  elevated  about  45°.  2.  Hang  it  by  the 
trigger-guard  hitched  over  the  forearm  brought  round  to  the 
breast,  the  stock  passing  behind  the  upper  arm,  the  muzzle 
pointing  to  the  ground  a  pace  or  so  in  front  of  you.  3.  Shoulder 
it,  the  hand  on  the  grip  or  heel  plate,  the  muzzle  pointing  upward 


CARE   OF  A   GUN.  13 

at  least  45°.  4.  Shoulder  it  reversed,  the  hand  grasping  the 
barrels  about  their  middle,  the  muzzle  pointing  forward  and 
downward :  this  is  perfectly  admissible,  but  is  the  most  awk- 
ward position  of  all  to  recover  from.  Always  carry  a  loaded 
gun  at  half-cock^  unless  you  are  about  to  shoot.  Unless  the 
lock  fail,  accidental  discharge  is  impossible,  except  under 
these  circumstances  :  a,  a  direct  blow  on  the  nipple  or  pin  ;  6, 
catching  of  both  hammer  and  trigger  simultaneous!}7",  drawing 
back  of  the  former  and  its  release  whilst  the  trigger  is  still 
held  —  the  chances  against  which  are  simply  incalculable. 
Full-cock,  ticklish  as  it  seems,  is  safer  than  no-cock,  when  a 
tap  on  the  hammer  or  even  the  heel-plate,  or  a  slight  catch  and 
release  of  the  hammer,  may  cause  discharge.  Never  let  the 
muzzle  of  a  loaded  gun  point  toward  your  own  person  for  a 
single  instant.  Get  your  gun  over  fences  or  into  boats  or 
carriages,  before,  you  get  over  or  in  yourself,  or  at  any  rate  no 
later.  Remove  caps  or  cartridges  on  entering  a  house.  Never 
aim  a  gun,  loaded  or  not,  at  any  object,  unless  you  mean  to 
press  the  trigger.  Never  put  a  loaded  gun  away  long  enough 
to  forget  whether  it  is  loaded  or  not ;  never  leave  a  loaded  gun 
to  be  found'  by  others  under  circumstances  reasonably  presup- 
posing it  to  be  unloaded.  Never  put  a  gun  where  it  can  be 
knocked  down  by  a  dog  or  a  child.  Never  forget  that  though 
a  gunning  accident  may  be  sometimes  interpretable  (from  a 
certain  standpoint)  as  a  "dispensation  of  Providence,"  such 
are  dispensed  oftenest  to  the  careless. 

§8.  To  CLEAN  A  GUN  properly  requires  some  knowledge, 
more  good  temper,  and  most  "elbow-grease  ;"  it  is  dirty,  disa- 
greeable, inevitable  work,  which  laziness,  business,  tiredness, 
indifference  and  good  taste  will  by  turns  tempt  you  to  shirk. 
After  a  hunt  you  are  tired,  have  your  clothes  to  change,  a  meal 
to  eat,  a  lot  of  birds  to  skin,  a  journal  to  write  up.  If  you 
"  sub-let"  the  contract  the  chances  are  it  is  but  half  fulfilled  ; 
serve  yourself,  if  you  want  to  be  well  served.  If  you  cannot 
find  time  for  a  regular  cleaning,  an  intolerably  foul  gun  may 
be  made  to  do  another  day's  work  by  swabbing  for  a  few  mo- 


14       IMPLEMENTS   FOR    COLLECTING,  AND    THEIR   USE. 

ments  with  a  wet  (not  dripping)  rag,  and  then  with  an  oiled 
one.  For  the  full  wash  use  cold  water  first ;  it  loosens  dirt 
better  than  hot  water.  Set  the  barrels  in  a  pail  of  water ; 
wrap  the  end  of  the  cleaning  rod  with  tow  or  cloth,  and  pump 
away  till  your  arms  ache.  Change  the  rag  or  tow,  and  the 
water  too,  till  they  both  stay  clean  for  all  the  swabbing  you 
can  do.  Fill  the  barrels  with  boiling  water  till  they  are  well 
heated  ;  pour  it  out,  wipe  as  dry  as  possible  inside  and  out, 
and  set  them  by  a  fire.  Finish  with  a  light  oiling,  inside  and 
out ;  touch  up  all  the  metal  about  the  stock,  and  polish  the 
wood-work.  Do  not  remove  the  locks  oftener  than  is  neces- 
sary ;  every  time  they  are  taken  out,  something  of  the  exqui- 
site fitting  that  marks  a  good  gun  may  be  lost ;  as  long  as  they 
work  smoothly  take  it  for  granted  they  are  all  right.  The 
same  direction  applies  to  nipples.  To  keep  a  gun  well,  under 
long  disuse,  it  should  have  had  a  particularly  thorough  cleaning  ; 
the  chambers  should  be  packed  with  greasy  tow  ;  greased  wads 
may  be  rammed  at  intervals  along  the  barrels  ;  or  the  barrels 
may  be  filled  with  melted  tallow.  Neat's-foot  is  recommended 
as  the  best  easily-procured  oil ;  porpoise-oil  which  is,  I  believe, 
used  by  watch-makers,  is  the  very  best ;  the  oil  made  for  use 
on  sewing  machines  is  excellent;  "olive  "oil  (made  of  lard) 
for  table  use  answers  the  purpose.  The  quality  of  any  oil 
may  be  improved  by  putting  in  it  a  few  tacks,  or  scraps  of 
zinc, — the  oil  expends  its  rusting  capacity  in  oxidizing  the 
metal.  Inferior  oils  get  "sticky."  One  of  the  best  prevent- 
ives of  rust  is  mercurial  ("blue")  ointment:  it  may  be  freely 
used.  Kerosene  will  remove  rust ;  but  use  it  sparingly  for  it 
"  eats"  sound  metal  too. 

§9.  To  LOAD  A  GUN  effectively  requires  something  more 
than  knowledge  of  the  facts  that  the  powder  should  go  in 
before  the  shot,  and  that  each  should  have  a  wad  a-top.  Prob- 
ably the  most  nearly  universal  fault  is  use  of  too  much  shot 
for  the  amount  of  powder ;  and  the  next,  too  much  of  both. 
The  rule  is  bulk  for  bulk  of  powder  and  shot ;  if  not  exactly 
this,  then  rather  less  shot  than  powder.  It  is  absurd  to  sup- 


LOADING   A   GUN.  15 

pose,  as  some  persons  who  ought  to  know  better  do,  that  the 
more  shot  in  a  gun  the  greater  the  chances  of  killing.  The 
projectile  force  of  a  charge  cannot  possibly  be  greater  than 
the  vis  inertice  of  the  gun  as  held  by  the  shooter.  The  explo- 
sion is  manifested  in  all  directions,  and  blows  the  shot  one  way 
simply  and  only  because  it  has  no  other  escape.  If  the  resist- 
ance in  front  of  the  powder  were  greater  than  elsewhere  the 
shot  would  not  budge,  but  the  gun  would  fly  backward,  or  burst. 
This  always  reminds  me  of  Lord  Dundreary's  famous  conun- 
drum— Why  does  a  dog  wag  his  tail  ?  Because  he  is  bigger  than 
his  tail ;  otherwise,  the  tail  would  wag  him.  A  gun  shoots  shot 
because  the  gun  is  the  heavier ;  otherwise,  the  shot  would  shoot 
the  gun.  Every  unnecessary  pellet  is  a  pellet  against  }'ou,  not 
against  the  game.  The  experienced  sportsman  uses  about  one- 
third  less  shot  than  the  tyro,  with  proportionally  better  result, 
other  things  being  equal.  As  to  powder,  moreover,  a  gun  can 
only  burn  just  so  much,  and  every  grain  blown  out  unburnt  is 
wasted  if  nothing  more.  No  express  directions  for  absolute 
weight  or  measures  of  either  powder  or  shot  can  be  given  ;  in 
fact,  different  guns  take  as  their  most  effective  charge  such  a 
variable  amount  of  ammunition,  that  one  of  the  first  things  you 
have  to  learn  about  your  own  arm  is,  its  normal  charge-gauge. 
Find  out,  by  assiduous  target  practice,  what  absolute  amounts 
(and  to  a  slight  degree,  what  relative  proportion)  of  powder 
and  shot  are  required  to  shoot  the  furthest  and  distribute  the 
pellets  most  evenly.  This  practice,  furthermore,  will  acquaint 
you  with  the  gun's  capacities  in  every  respect.  You  should 
learn  exactly  what  it  will  and  what  it  will  not  do,  so  as  to  feel 
perfect  confidence  in  your  arm  within  a  certain  range,  and  to 
waste  no  shots  in  attempting  miracles.  Immoderate  recoil  is 
a  pretty  sure  sign  that  the  gun  was  overloaded,  or  otherwise 
wrongly  charged  ;  and  all  force  of  recoil  is  subtracted  from  the 
impulse  of  the  shot.  It  is  useless  to  ram  powder  very  hard  ; 
two  or  three  smart  taps  of  the  rod  will  suffice,  and  more  will 
not  increase  the  explosive  force.  On  the  shot  the  wad  should 
simply  be  pressed  close  enough  to  fix  the  pellets  immovably. 
All  these  directions  apply  to  the  charging  of  metal  or  paper 


16       IMPLEMENTS    FOR   COLLECTING,  AND    THEIR   USE. 

cartridges  as  well  as  to  loading  by  the  muzzle.  When  about 
to  recharge  one  barrel  see  that  the  hammer  of  the  other  stands 
at  half-cock.  Do  not  drop  the  ramrod  into  the  other  barrel, 
for  a  stray  shot  might  impact  between  the  swell  of  the  head 
and  the  gun  and  make  it  difficult  to  withdraw  the  rod.  During 
the  whole  operation  keep  the  muzzle  as  far  from  your  person 
as  you  conveniently  can.  Never  force  home  a  wad  with  the  flat 
of  your  hand  over  the  end  of  the  rod,  but  hold  the  rod  between 
your  fingers  and  thumb  ;  in  case  of  premature  explosion,  it 
will  make  just  the  difference  of  lacerated  finger  tips,  or  a 
blown-up  hand.  Never  look  into  a  loaded  gun  barrel ;  you 
might  as  wisely  put  your  head  into  a  lion's  mouth  to  see  what 
the  animal  had  for  dinner.  After  a  miss-fire  hold  the  gun  up 
a  few  moments  and  be  ^low  to  reload  ;  the  fire  sometimes 
"hangs"  for  several  seconds.  Finally,  let  me  strongly  impress 
upon  you  the  expediency  of  light  loading  in  your  routine  col- 
lecting. Three-fourths  of  your  shots  need  not  bring  into 
action  the  gun's  full  powers  of  execution.  You  will  shoot 
more  birds  under  than  over  30  yards  ;  not  a  few,  you  must 
secure,  if  at  all,  at  10  or  15  yards ;  and  your  object  is  always 
to  kill  them  with  the  least  possible  damage  to  the  plumage. 
I  have,  on  particular  occasions,  loaded  even  down  to  -^oz.  of  shot 
and  l^dr.  of  powder.  There  is  astonishing  force  compressed 
in  a  few  grains  of  powder ;  an  astonishing  number  of  pellets 
in  the  smallest  load  of  mustard-seed.  If  you  can  load  so 
nicely  as  to  just  drive  the  shot  into  a  bird  and  not  through 
it  and  out  again,  do  so,  and  save  half  the  holes  in  the  skin. 

§10.  To  SHOOT  successfully  is  an  art  which  may  be  acquired 
by  practice,  and  can  be  learned  only  in  the  school  of  experi- 
ence. No  general  directions  will  make  you  a  good  shot,  any 
more  than  a  proficient  in  music  or  painting.  To  tell  }^ou  that 
in  order  to  hit  a  bird  you  must  point  the  gun  at  it  and  press 
the  trigger,  is  like  saying  that  to  play  on  the  fiddle  you  must 
shove  the  bow  across  the  strings  with  one  hand  while  you  fin- 
ger them  with  the  other  ;  in  either  case  the  result  is  the  same, 
a  noise  —  vox  et  prceterea  nihil — but  neither  music  nor  game. 


ABOUT   SHOOTING.  17 

Nor  is  it  possible  for  every  one  to  become  an  artist  in  gunnery ; 
a  "crack  shot,"  like  a  poet,  is  born,  not  made.  For  myself  I 
make  no  pretensions  to  genius  in  that  direction  ;  for  although 
I  generally  make  fair  bags,  and  have  destroyed  many  thousand, 
birds  in  my  time,  this  is  rather  owing  to  some  familiarity  I 
have  gained  with  the  habits  of  birds,  and  a  certain  knack, 
acquired  by  long  practice,  of  picking  them  out  of  trees  and 
bushes,  than  to  skilful  shooting  from  the  sportsman's  stand- 
point ;  in  fact,  if  I  cut  down  two  or  three  birds  on  the  wing  with- 
out a  miss  I  am  working  quite  up  to  my  average  in  that  line. 
But  any  one,  not  a  purblind  "  butter  fingers,"  can  become  a 
reasonably  fair  shot  by  practice,  and  do  good  collecting.  It 
is  not  so  hard,  after  all,  to  sight  a  gun  correctly  on  an  immov- 
able object,  and  collecting  differs  from  sporting  proper  in  this, 
that  comparatively  few  birds  are  shot  on  the  wing.  But  I  do 
not  mean  to  imply  that  it  requires  less  skill  to  collect  suc- 
cessfully than  to  secure  game  ;  ou  the  contrary,  it  is  finer 
shooting,  I  think,  to  drop  a  warbler  skipping  about  a  tree-top 
than  to  stop  a  quail  at  full  speed  ;  while  hitting  a  sparrow  that 
springs  from  the  grass  at  one's  feet  to  flicker  in  sight  a  few 
seconds  and  disappear  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  shooting. 
Besides,  a  crack  shot,  as  understood,  aims  unconsciously,  with 
mechanical  accuracy  and  certitude  of  hitting ;  he  simply  wills, 
and  the  trained  muscles  obey  without  his  superintendence, 
just  as  the  fingers  form  letters  with  the  pen  in  writing ; 
whereas  the  collector  must  usually  supervise  his  muscles  all 
through  the  act  and  see  that  they  mind.  In  spite  of  the  pro- 
portion of  snap  shots  of  all  sorts  you  will  have  to  take,  your 
collecting  shots,  as  a  rule,  are  made  with  deliberate  aim. 
There  is  much  the  same  difference,  on  the  whole,  between  the 
sportsman's  work  and  the  collector's,  that  there  is  between 
shot-gun  and  rifle  practice,  collecting  being  comparable  to  the 
latter.  It  is  generally  understood  that  the  acme  of  skill  with 
the  two  weapons  is  an  incompatibility ;  and  certainly,  the  best 
shot  is  not  always  the  best  collector,  even  supposing  the  two  to 
be  on  a  par  in  their  knowledge  of  birds'  haunts  and  habits. 
Still,  a  hopelessly  poor  shot  can  only  attain  fair  results  by 

MAXUAL.        2 


18       IMPLEMENTS    FOR    COLLECTING,  AND   THEIR    USE. 

extraordinary  diligence  and  perseverance.  Certain  principles 
of  shooting  may  perhaps  be  reduced  to  words.  Aim  deliber- 
ately directly  at  an  immovable  object  at  fair  range.  Hold 
over  a  motionless  object  when  far  off,  as  the  trajectory  of  the 
shot  curves  downward.  Hold  a  little  to  one  side  of  a  station- 
ary object  when  very  near,  preferring  rather  to  take  the  chances 
of  missing  it  with  the  peripheral  pellets,  than  of  hopelessly 
mutilating  it  with  the  main  body  of  the  charge.  Fire  at  the 
first  fair  aim,  without  trying  to  improve  what  is  good  enough 
already.  Never  "pull"  the  trigger,  but  press  it.  Bear  the 
shock  of  discharge  without  flinching.  In  shooting  on  the 
wing,  fire  the  instant  the  butt  of  the  gun  taps  your  shoulder ; 
you  will  miss  at  first,  but  by  and  by  the  birds  will  begin 
to  drop,  and  you  will  have  laid  the  foundation  of  good 
shooting,  the  knack  of  "covering"  a  bird  unconsciously. 
The  habit  of  "  poking"  after  a  bird  on  the  wing  is  an  almost 
incurable  vice,  and  may  keep  you  a  poor  shot  all  your  life. 
(The  collector's  frequent  necessity  of  poking  after  little  birds 
in  the  bush  is  just  what  so  often  hinders  him  from  acquiring 
brilliant  execution.)  Aim  ahead  of  a  flying  bird  —  the  calcu- 
lation to  be  made  varies,  according  to  the  distance  of  the 
object,  its  velocity,  its  course  and  the  wind,  from  a  few 
inches  to  several  feet ;  practice  will  finally  render  it  intuitive. 


CHARTER    II. 

DOGS. 

§11.  A  GOOD  DOG  is  one  of  the  most  faithful,  respectful, 
affectionate  and  sensible  of  brutes  ;  deference  to  such  rare 
qualities  demands  a  chapter,  however  brief.  A  trained  dog  is 
the  indispensable  servant  of  the  sportsman  in  his  pursuit  of 
most  kinds  of  game  ;  but  I  trust  I  am  guilty  of  no  discourtesy 
to  the  noble  animal,  when  I  say  that  he  is  a  luxury  rather  than 
a  necessity  to  the  collector — a  pleasant  companion,  who  knows 
almost  everything  except  how  to  talk,  who  converses  with  his 
eyes  and  ears  and  tail,  shares  comforts  and  discomforts  with 
equal  alacrity,  and  occasionally  makes  himself  useful.  So 
far  as  a  collector's  work  tallies  with  that  of  a  sportsman,  the 
dog  is  equally  useful  to  both ;  but  finding  and  telling  of  game 
aside,  your  dog's  services  are  restricted  to  companionship  and 
retrieving.  He  may,  indeed,  flush  many  sorts  of  birds  for 
you ;  but  he  does  it,  if  at  all,  at  random,  while  capering 
about ;  for  the  brute  intellect  is  limited  after  all,  and  cannot 
comprehend  a  naturalist.  The  best  trained  setter  or  pointer 
that  ever  marked  a  quail  could  not  be  made  to  understand 
what  you  are  about,  and  it  would  ruin  him  for  sporting  pur- 
poses if  he  did.  Take  a  well-bred,  high-toned  dog  out  with 
you,  and  the  chances  are  he  will  soon  trot  home  in  disgust 
at  your  performances  with  jack-sparrows  and  tomtits.  It 
implies  such  a  lowering  and  perversion  of  a  good  dog's  in- 
stincts to  make  him  really  a  useful  servant  of  yours^,  that  I  am 
half  inclined  to  say  nothing  about  retrieving,  and  tell  you  to 
make  a  companion  of  your  dog,  or  let  him  alone.  I  was 
followed  for  several  years  by  "  the  best  dog  I  ever  saw"  (every 
one's  gun,  dog,  and  child  is  the  best  ever  seen),  and  a  first- 
rate  retriever ;  yet  I  always  preferred,  when  practicable,  to 
pick  up  my  own  birds,  rather  than  let  a  delicate  plumage  into 
a  dog's  mouth,  and  scolded  away  the  poor  brute  so  often, 
that  she  very  properly  returned  the  compliment,  in  the  end,  by 

(19) 


20  DOGS. 

retrieving  just  when  she  felt  like  it.  However,  we  remained 
the  best  of  friends.  Any  good  setter,  pointer  or  spaniel, 
and  some  kinds  of  curs,  may  be  trained  to  retrieve.  The 
great  point  is  to  teach  them  not  to  "mouth"  a  bird  ;  it  may  be 
accomplished  by  sticking  pins  in  the  ball  with  which  their 
early  lessons  are  taught.  Such  dogs  are  particularly  useful  in 
bringing  birds  out  of  the  water,  and  in  searching  for  them 
when  lost.  One  point  in  training  should  never  be  neglected  : 
teach  a  dog  what  "to  heel"  means,  and  make  him  obey  this 
command.  A  riotous  brute  is  simply  unendurable  under  any 
circumstances. 


CHAPTER    in. 

VARIOUS  SUGGESTIONS  AND  DIRECTIONS  FOR  FIELD-WOEK. 

§12.  To  BE  A  GOOD  COLLECTOR,  and  nothing  more;  is  a 
small  affair;  great  skill  may  be  acquired  in  the  art,  without 
a  single  quality  commanding  respect.  One  of  the  most  vulgar, 
brutal  and  ignorant  men  I  ever  knew  was  a  sharp  collector  and 
an  excellent  taxidermist.  Collecting  stands  much  in  the  same 
relation  to  ornithology  that  the  useful  and  indispensable  office 
of  an  apothecary  bears  to  the  duties  of  a  physician.  A  field- 
naturalist  is  always  more  or  less  of  a  collector ;  the  latter  is 
sometimes  found  to  know  almost  nothing  of  natural  history 
worth  knowing.  The  true  ornithologist  goes  out  to  study  birds 
alive  and  destroys  some  of  them  simply  because  that  is  the 
only  way  of  learning  their  structure  and  technical  characters. 
There  is  much  more  about  a  bird  than  can  be  discovered  in 
its  dead  body — how  much  more,  then,  than  can  be  found  out 
from  its  stuffed  skin!  In  my  humble  opinion  the  man  who 
only  gathers  birds,  as  a  miser,  money,  to  swell  his  cabinet, 
and  that  other  man  who  gloats,  as  miser-like,  over  the  same 
hoard,  both  work  on  a  plane  far  beneath  where  the  enlightened 
naturalist  stands.  One  looks  at  Nature,  and  never  knows  that 
she  is  beautiful ;  the  other  knows  she  is  beautiful,  as  even  a 
corpse  may  be  ;  the  naturalist  catches  her  sentient  expression, 
and  knows  how  beautiful  she  is  !  I  would  have  you  to  know 
and  love  her;  for  fairer  mistress  never  swayed  the  heart  of 
man.  Aim  high ! — press  on,  and  leave  the  halfway-house  of 
mere  collectorship  far  behind  in  your  pursuit  of  a  delightful 
study,  nor  fancy  the  closet  its  goal. 

§13.  BIRDS  may  be  sought  anywhere,  at  any  time ;  they 
should  be  sought  everywhere,  at  all  times.  Some  come  about 
your  doorstep  to  tell  their  stories  unasked.  Others  spring  up 
before  you  as  you  stroll  in  the  field,  like  the  flowers  that  enticed 

(21) 


22      SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS   FOR   FIELD-WORK. 

the  feet  of  Proserpine.  Birds  flit  by  as  you  measure  the  tired 
roadside,  lending  a  tithe  of  their  life  to  quicken  your  dusty 
steps.  They  disport  overhead  at  hide-and-seek  with  the  foliage 
as  you  loiter  in  the  shade  of  the  forest,  and  their  music  now 
answers  the  sigh  of  the  tree-tops,  now  ripples  an  echo  to  the 
voice  of  the  brook.  But  you  will  not  always  so  pluck  a  thorn- 
less  rose.  Birds  hedge  themselves  about  with  a  bristling 
girdle  of  brier  and  bramble  you  cannot  break  ;  they  build  their 
tiny  castles  in  the  air  surrounded  by  impassable  moats,  and 
the  drawbridges  are  never  down.  They  crown  the  mountain- 
top  you  may  lose  your  breath  to  climb  ;  they  sprinkle  the  desert 
where  your  parched  lips  may  find  no  cooling  draught ;  they 
fleck  the  snow-wreath  when  the  nipping  blast  may  make  you 
turn  your  back ;  they  breathe  unharmed  the  pestilent  vapors 
of  the  swamp  that  mean  disease,  if  not  death,  for  you  ;  they 
outride  the  storm  at  sea  that  sends  strong  men  to  their  last 
account.  Where  now  will  you  look  for  birds  ? 

§14.  AND  YET,  as  skilled  labor  is  always  most  productive, 
so  expert  search  yields  more  than  random  or  blundering  pur- 
suit. Imprimis;  The  more  varied  the  face  of  a  country,  the 
more  varied  its  birds.  A  place  all  plain,  all  marsh,  all  wood- 
land, yields  its  particular  set  of  birds,  perhaps  in  profusion ; 
but  the  kinds  will  be  limited  in  number.  It  is  of  first  impor- 
tance to  remember  this,  when  you  are  so  fortunate  as  to  have 
choice  of  a  collecting-ground ;  and  it  will  guide  your  steps 
aright  in  a  day's  walk  anywhere,  for  it  will  make  you  leave 
covert  for  open,  wet  for  dry,  high  for  low  and  back  again. 
Well-watered  country  is  more  fruitful  of  bird-life  than  desert  or 
even  prairie  ;  warm  regions  are  more  productive  than  cold  ones. 
As  a  rule,  variety  and  abundance  of  birds  are  in  direct  ratio  to 
diversity  and  luxuriance  of  vegetation.  Your  most  valuable  as 
well  as  largest  bags  may  be  made  in  the  regions  most  favored 
botanically,  up  to  the  point  where  exuberance  of  plant-growth 
mechanically  opposes  your  operations. 

§15.   SEARCH  for  particular  birds  can  only  be  well  directed, 


HAUNTS   OF    BIRDS.  23 

of  course,  by  a  knowledge  of  their  special  haunts  and  habits, 
and  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of  wood-craft  only  solved  by  long 
experience  and  close  observation.  Here  is  where  the  true 
naturalist  bears  himself  with  conscious  pride  and  strength, 
winning  laurels  that  become  him,  and  do  honor  to  his  calling. 
"Where  to  find  game  ("game"  is  anything  that  vulgar  people  do 
not  ridicule  you  for  shooting)  of  all  the  kinds  we  have  in  this 
country  has  been  so  often  and  so  minutely  detailed  in  sporting- 
works  that  it  need  not  be  here  enlarged  upon,  especially  since, 
being  the  best  known,  it  is  the  least  valuable  of  ornithological 
material.  Most  large  or  otherwise  conspicuous  birds  have 
very  special  haunts  that  may  be  soon  learned ;  and  as  a  rule 
such  rank  next  after  game  in  ornithological  disesteem.  Birds 
of  prey  are  an  exception  to  these  statements,  they  range 
everywhere,  and  most  of  them  are  worth  securing.  Hawks 
will  unwittingly  fly  in  your  way  oftener  than  they  will  allow 
you  to  approach  them  when  perched  :  be  ready  for  them.  Owls 
will  be  startled  out  of  their  retreats  in  thick  bushes,  dense 
foliage,  and  hollow  trees,  in  the  daytime ;  if  hunting  them  at 
night,  good  aim  in  the  dark  may  be  taken  by  rubbing  a  wet 
lucifer  match  on  the  sight  of  the  gun,  causing  a  momentary 
glimmer.  Large  and  small  waders  are  to  be  found  by  any 
water's-edge,  in  open  marshes,  and  often  on  dry  plains ;  the 
herons  more  particularly  in  heavy  bogs  and  dense  swamps. 
Under  cover,  waders  are  oftenest  approached  by  stealth ;  in 
the  open,  by  strategy ;  but  most  of  the  smaller  kinds  require 
the  exercise  of  no  special  precautions.  Swimming  birds, 
aside  from  water-fowl  (as  the  "game"  kinds  are  called),  are 
generally  shot  from  a  boat,  as  they  fly  past ;  but  at  their 
breeding  places  many  kinds  that  congregate  in  vast  numbers 
are  more  readily  reached.  There  is  a  knack  of  shooting  loons 
and  grebes  on  the  water ;  if  they  are  to  be  reached  at  all  by 
the  shot  it  will  be  by  aiming  not  directly  at  them  but  at  the 
water  just  in  front  of  them.  They  do  not  go  under  just  where 
they  float,  but  kick  up  behind  like  a  jumping-jack  and  plunge 
foncard.  Rails  and  several  kinds  of  sparrows  are  confined  to 
reedy  marshes.  But  why  prolong  such  desultory  remarks? 


24     SUGGESTIONS    AND    DIRECTIONS   FOR   FIELD-WORK. 

Little  can  be  said  to  the  point  without  at  least  a  miniature 
treatise  on  ornithology ;  and  I  have  not  yet  even  alluded  to 
the  diversified  host  of  small  insectivorous  and  granivorous 
birds  that  fill  our  woods  and  fields.  The  very  existence  of 
most  of  these  is  unknown  to  all  but  the  initiated ;  yet  they 
include  the  treasures  of  the  ornithologist.  Some  are  plain  and 
humble,  others  are  among  the  most  beautiful  objects  in  nature  ; 
but  most  agree  in  being  small,  and  therefore  liable  to  be  over- 
looked. The  sum  of  my  advice  about  them  must  be  brief. 
Get  over  as  much  ground,  both  wooded  and  open,  as  you  can 
thoroughly  examine  in  a  day's  tramp,  and  go  out  as  many  days 
as  you  can.  It  is  not  always  necessary,  however,  to  keep  on 
the  tramp,  especially  during  the  migration  of  the  restless 
insectivorous  species.  One  may  often  shoot  for  hours  with- 
out moving  more  than  a  few  yards,  by  selecting  a  favorable 
locality  and  allowing  the  birds  to  come  to  him  as  they  pass  in 
varied  troops  through  the  low  woodlands  or  swampy  thickets. 
Keep  your  eyes  and  ears  wide  open.  Look  out  for  every 
rustling  leaf  and  swaying  twig  and  bending  blade  of  grass. 
Hearken  to  every  note,  however  faint ;  when  there  is  no 
sound,  listen  for  a  chirp.  Habitually  move  as  noiselessly 
as  possible.  Keep  your  gun  ahvays  ready.  Improve  every 
opportunity  of  studying  a  bird  you  do  not  wish  to  destroy ; 
you  may  often  make  observations  more  valuable  than  the 
specimen.  Let  this  be  the  rule  with  all  birds  you  recognize. 
But  I  fear  I  must  tell  you  to  shoot  an  unknown  bird  on 
sight ;  it  may  give  you  the  slip  in  a  moment,  and  a  prize  may 
be  lost.  One  of  the  most  fascinating  things  about  field-work 
is  its  delightful  uncertainty :  you  never  know  what's  in  store 
for  you  as  you  start  out ;  you  never  can  tell  what  will  happen 
next ;  surprises  are  always  in  order,  and  excitement  is  contin- 
ually whetted  on  the  chances  of  the  varied  chase. 

For  myself,  the  time  is  past,  happily  or  not,  when  every 
bird  was  an  agreeable  surprise,  for  dewdrops  do  not  last  all 
day ;  but  I  have  never  yet  walked  in  the  woods  without  learn- 
ing something  pleasant  that  I  did  not  know  before.  I  should 
consider  a  bird  new  to  science  ample  reward  for  a  month's 


ALL   TIMES   FOR    SHOOTING.  25 

steady  work  ;  one  bird  new  to  a  locality  would  repay  a  week's 
search ;  a  day  is  happily  spent  that  shows  me  any  bird  that  I 
never  saw  alive  before.  How  then  can  you,  with  so  much 
before  you,  keep  out  of  the  woods  another  minute? 

§16.   ALL  TIMES  are  good  times  to  go  a-shooting ;  but  some 
are  better  than  others,     a.    Time  of  year.     In  all  temperate 
latitudes,  the  spring  and  fall — periods  of  migration  with  most 
birds  —  are  the  most  profitable  seasons  for  collecting.      Not 
only  are  birds  then  most   numerous,  both  as"  species  and  as 
individuals,  and  most  active,  so  as  to  be  the  more  readily  found, 
but  they  include  a  far  larger  proportion  of  rare  and  valuable 
kinds.     In  every  locality  in  this  country  the  periodical  visit- 
ants outnumber  the  permanent  residents  ;  in  most  regions  the 
number  of  regular  migrants,  that  simply  pass  through  in  the 
spring  and  fall,  equals  or  exceeds  that  of  either  of  the  sets  of 
species  that  come  from  the  south  in  spring  to  breed  during  the 
summer,  or  from  the  north  to  spend  the  winter.     Far  north,  of 
course,  on  or  near  the  limit  of  the  vernal  migration,  where 
there  are  few  if  any  migrants  passing  through,  and  where  the 
winter  birds  are  extremely  few,  nearly  all  the  bird  fauna  is 
composed  of  "  summer  visitants ;"  far  south,  in  this  country, 
the  reverse  is  somewhat  the  case,  though  with  many  qualifica- 
tions.    Between  these  extremes,  what  is  conventionally  known 
as  "a  season"   means  the  period  of  the  vernal  or  autumnal 
migration.     For  example,  the  body  of  birds  present  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  (where  I  collected  for  several  years)  in 
the  two  months  from  April  20th  to  May  20th,  and  from  Sep- 
tember 10th  to  October  10th,  is  undoubtedly  greater,  as  far  as 
individuals  are  concerned,  than  the  total  number  found  there  at 
all  other  seasons  of  the  year  together.     As  for  species,  the  num- 
ber of  migrants  about  equals  that  of  summer  visitants;  the 
permanent  residents  equal  the  winter  residents,  both  these  being 
fewer  than  either  of  the  first  mentioned  sets  ;  while  the  irregular 
visitors,  or  stragglers,  that  complete  the  bird  fauna,  are  about, 
or  rather  less  than,  one-half  as  many  as  the  species  of  either  of 
the  other  categories.     About  Washington,  therefore,  I  would 


26      SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS   FOR   FIELD-WORK. 

readily  undertake  to  secure  a  greater  variety  of  birds  in  the  nine 
weeks  above  specified  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  year  ;  for  in  that 
time  would  be  found,  not  only  all  the  permanent  residents,  but 
nearly  all  the  migrants,  and  almost  all  the  summer  visitants  ; 
while  the  number  of  individual  birds  that  might  be  taken  ex- 
ceeds, by  quite  as  much,  the  number  of  those  procurable  in  the 
same  length  of  time  at  any  other  season.  Mutatis  mutandis, 
it  is  the  same  everywhere  in  this  country.  Look  out  then,  for 
"  the  season  ;"  work  all  through  it  at  a  rate  you  could  not  pos- 
sibly sustain  the  year  around ;  and  make  hay  while  the  sun 
shines,  b.  Time  of  day.  Early  in  the  morning  and  late  in 
the  afternoon  are  the  best  times  for  birds.  There  is  a  mysteri- 
ous something  in  these  diurnal  crises  that  sets  bird-life  astir, 
over  and  above  what  is  explainable  by  the  simple  fact  that  they 
are  the  transition  periods  from  repose  to  activity,  or  the  reverse. 
Subtile  meteorological  changes  occur  ;  various  delicate  instru- 
ments used  in  physicists'  researches  are  sometimes  inexplicably 
disturbed ;  diseases  have  often  their  turning  point  for  better 
or  worse ;  people  are  apt  to  be  born  or  die ;  and  the  suscep- 
tible organisms  of  birds  manifest  various  excitements.  What- 
ever the  operative  influence,  the  fact  is,  birds  are  particularly 
lively  at  such  hours.  In  the  dark,  they  rest  —  most  of  them 
do :  at  noonday,  again,  they  are  comparatively  still ;  between 
these  times  they  are  passing  to  or  from  their  feeding  grounds 
or  roosting  places  ;  they  are  foraging  for  food,  they  are  singing  ; 
at  any  rate,  they  are  in  motion.  Many  migratory  birds  (among 
them  warblers,  etc.)  perform  their  journeys  by  night ;  just  at 
daybreak  they  may  be  seen  to  descend  from  the  upper  regions, 
rest  awhile,  and  then  move  about  briskly,  singing  and  search- 
ing for  food.  Their  meal  taken,  they  recuperate  by  resting  till 
towards  evening  :  feed  again  and  are  off  for  the  night.  If  you 
have  had  some  experience,  don't  you  remember  what  a  fine  spurt 
you  made  early  that  morning? — how  many  unexpected  shots 
offered  as  you  trudged  home  belated  that  evening  ?  Now  I  am 
no  fowl,  and  have  no  desire  to  adopt  the  habits  of  the  hen-yard  ; 
I  have  my  opinion  of  those  who  like  the  world  before  it  is 
aired ;  I  think  it  served  the  worm  right  for  getting  up,  when 


WHAT   BIRDS   YOU   WANT.  27 

caught  by  the  early  bird  ;  nevertheless  I  go  shooting  betimes  in 
the  morning,  and  would  walk  all  night  to  find  a  rare  bird  at  day- 
light, c.  Weather.  It  rarely  occurs  in  this  country  that  either 
heat  or  cold  is  unendurably  severe  ;  but  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture are  unfavorable,  for  two  reasons  :  they  both  occasion  great 
personal  discomfort ;  and  in  one  extreme  only  a  few  hardy  birds 
will  be  found,  while  in  the  other,  most  birds  are  languid,  dis- 
posed to  seek  shelter,  and  therefore  less  likely  to  be  found. 
A  still,  cloudy  day  of  moderate  temperature  ofiers  as  a  rule  the 
best  chance  ;  among  other  reasons,  there  is  no  sun  to  blind  the 
eyes,  as  always  occurs  on  a  bright  day  in  one  direction,  partic- 
ularly when  the  sun  is  low.  While  a  bright  day  has  its  good 
influence  in  setting  many  birds  astir,  some  others  are  most 
easily  approached  in  heavy  or  falling  weather.  Some  kinds 
are  more  likely  to  be  secured  during  a  light  snowfall,  or  after 
a  storm.  Singular  as  it  may  seem,  a  thoroughly  wet  day  ofiers 
some  peculiar  inducements  to  the  collector.  I  cannot  well 
specify  them,  but  I  heartily  endorse  a  remark  John  Cassin 
once  made  to  me  : — "I  like,"  said  he,  "to  go  shooting  in  the 
rain  sometimes  ;  there  are  some  curious  things  to  be  learned 
about  birds  when  the  trees  are  dripping,  things  too  that  have 
not  yet  found  their  way  into  the  books." 

§17.     HOW   MANY   BIRDS    OF    THE     SAME    KIND    DO   YOU   WAXT  ? 

—  All  you  can  get  —  with  some  reasonable  limitations  ;  say  fifty 
or  a  hundred  of  any  but  the  most  abundant  and  widely  diffused 
species.  You  may  often  be  provoked  with  your  friend  for 
speaking  of  some  bird  he  shot,  but  did  not  bring  you,  because, 
he  says,  "Why,  you've  got  one  like  that!"  This  is  just  as 
reasonable  as  to  suppose  that  because  you  have  got  one  dollar 
you  would  not  like  to  have  another  dollar.  Birdskins  are 
capital ;  capital  unemployed  may  be  useless  but  can  never  be 
worthless.  Birdskins  are  a  medium  of  exchange  among  orni- 
thologists the  world  over  ;  they  represent  value — money  value 
and  scientific  value.  If  you  have  more  of  one  kind  than  3^011 
can  use  exchange  with  some  one  for  species  you  lack;  both 
parties  to  the  transaction  are  equally  benefited.  Let  me  bring 


28      SUGGESTIONS    AND   DIRECTIONS   FOR   FIELD-WORK. 

this  matter  under  several  heads,  a.  Your  own  "series"  of 
skins  of  any  species  is  incomplete  until  it  contains  at  least  one 
example  of  each  sex,  of  every  normal  state  of  plumage,  and 
every  normal  transition  stage  of  plumage,  and  further  illus- 
trates at  least  the  principal  abnormal  variations  in  size,  form 
and  color  to  which  the  species  may  be  subject ;  I  will  even  add 
that  every  different  faunal  area  the  bird  is  known  to  inhabit 
should  be  represented  by  a  specimen,  particularly  if  there  be 
anything  exceptional  in  the  geographical  distribution  of  the 
species.  Any  additional  specimens  to  all  such  are  your  only 
"duplicates,"  properly  speaking,  b.  Birds  vary  so  much  in 
their  size,  form  and  coloring,  that  a  "specific  character"  can 
only  be  precisely  determined  from  examination  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  specimens,  shot  at  different  times,  in  different  places ; 
still  less  can  the  "limits  of  variation"  in  these  respects  be 
settled  without  ample  materials,  c.  The  rarity  of  any  bird  is 
necessarily  an  arbitrary  and  fluctuating  consideration,  because 
in  the  nature  of  the-  0ase  there  can  be  no  natural  unit  of  com- 
parison, nor  standard  of  appreciation.  It  may  be  said,  in 
general  terms,  no  bird  is  actually  "  rare."  With  a  few  possible 
exceptions,  as  in  the  cases  of  birds  occupying  extraordinarily 
limited  areas,  like  some  of  the  birds  of  paradise,  or  about  to 
become  extinct,  like  the  great  auk,  enough  birds  of  all  kinds 
exist  to  overstock  every  public  and  private  collection  in  the 
world,  without  sensible  diminution  of  their  numbers.  "Rar- 
ity" or  the  reverse  is  only  predicable  upon  the  accidental  (so 
to  speak)  circumstances  that  throw,  or  tend  to  throw,  specimens 
into  naturalists'  hands.  Accessibility  is  the  variable  element  in 
every  case.  The  fulmar  petrel  is  said  (on  what  authority  I 
know  not)  to  exceed  any  other  bird  in  its  aggregate  of  indi- 
viduals ;  how  do  the  skins  of  that  bird  you  have  handled  com- 
pare in  number  with  specimens  you  have  seen  of  the  "rare" 
warbler  of  your  own  vicinity  ?  All  birds  are  common  somewhere 
at  some  season  ;  the  point  is,  have  collectors  been  there  at  the 
time?  Moreover,  even  the  arbitrary  appreciation  of  "rarity" 
is  fluctuating,  and  may  change  at  any  time ;  long  sought  and 
highly  prized  birds  are  liable  to  appear  suddenly  in  great  num- 


COMMON  AJTD  RAKE   BIRDS.  29 

bers  in  places  that  knew  them  not  before ;  a  single  heavy 
"  invoice "  of  a  bird  from  some  distant  or  little-explored  re- 
gion may  at  once  stock  the  market,  and  depreciate  the  current 
value  of  the  species  to  almost  nothing,  d.  Some  practical  de- 
ductions are  to  be  made  from  these  premises.  Your  object  is 
to  make  yourself  acquainted  with  all  the  birds  of  your  vi- 
cinity, and  to  preserve  a  complete  suite  of  specimens  of  every 
species.  Begin  by  shooting  every  bird  you  can,  coupling  this 
sad  destruction,  however,  with  the  closest  observations  upon 
habits.  You  will  very  soon  fill  your  series  of  a  few  kinds,  that 
you  find  almost  everywhere,  almost  daily.  Then  if  you  are 
in  a  region  the  ornithology  of  which  is  well  known  to  the  pro- 
fession, at  once  stop  killing  these  common  birds  —  they  are  in 
every  collection.  You  should  not,  as  a  rule,  destroy  any  more 
robins,  bluebirds,  song-sparrows,  and  the  like,  than  you  want 
for  yourself.  Keep  an  eye  on  them,  studying  them  always, 
but  turn  your  actual  pursuit  into  other  channels,  until  in  this 
way,  gradually  eliminating  the  undesirables,  you  exhaust  the 
bird  fauna  as  far  as  possible  (you  will  not  quite  exhaust  it  — 
at  least  for  many  years).  But  if  you  are  in  a  new  or  little 
known  locality,  I  had  almost  said  the  very  reverse  course  is  the 
best.  The  chances  are  that  the  most  abundant  and  character- 
istic birds  are  "  rare  "  in  collections.  Many  a  bird's  range  is 
quite  restricted  :  you  may  happen  to  be  just  at  its  metropolis  ; 
seize  the  opportunity,  and  get  good  store  —  yes,  up  to  fifty, 
or  a  hundred ;  all  you  can  spare  will  be  thankfully  received 
by  those  who  have  none.  Quite  as  likely,  birds  that  are  scarce 
just  where  you  happen  to  be,  are  so  only  because  you  are  on 
the  edge  of  their  habitat,  and  are  plentiful  in  more  accessible 
regions.  But,  rare  or  not,  it  is  always  a  point  to  determine  the 
exact  geographical  distribution  of  a  species :  and  this  is  fixed 
best  by  having  specimens  to  tell  each  its  own  tale,  from  as 
many  different  and  widely  separated  localities  as  possible. 
This  alone  warrants  procuring  one  or  more  specimens  in  every 
locality  ;  the  commonest  bird  acquires  a  certain  value  if  it  be 
captured  away  from  its  ordinary  range.  An  Eastern  Blue- 
bird shot  in  California  might  be  considered  more  valuable 


30     SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS   FOR   FIELD-WORK. 

than  the  "rarest"  bird  of  that  state,  and  would  certainly  be 
worth  a  hundred  Massachusetts  skins ;  the  Varied  Thrush 
(Turdus  ncevius)  that  was  killed  at  Ipswich,  Mass.,  is  worth  a 
like  number  from  Oregon.  But  let  all  your  justifiable  destruc- 
tion of  birds  be  tempered  with  mercy  ;  your  humanity  will  be 
continually  shocked  with  the  havoc  you  work,  and  should  never 
permit  you  to  take  life  wantonly.  Never  shoot  a  bird  you  do 
not  fully  intend  to  preserve,  or  to  utilize  in  some  proper  way. 
Bird-life  is  too  beautiful  a  thing  to  destroy  to  no  purpose  :  too 
sacred  a  thing,  like  all  life,  to  be  sacrificed,  unless  the  tribute 
is  hallowed  by  worthiness  of  motive.  "  Not  a  sparrow  falleth 
to  the  ground  without  His  notice." 

§18.  WHAT  is  "A  GOOD  DAY'S  WORK?"  Fifty  birds  shot, 
their  sldns  preserved,  and  observations  recorded,  is  a  very 
good  day's  work ;  it  is  sharp  practice  even  when  birds  are 
plentiful.  I  never  knew  a  person  to  average  anywhere  near  it ; 
even  during  the  "season"  such  work  cannot  possibly  be  sus- 
tained. You  may,  of  course,  by  a  murderous  discharge  into  a 
flock,  as  of  blackbirds  or  reedbirds,  get  a  hundred  or  more  in 
a  moment ;  but  I  refer  to  collecting  a  fair  variety  of  birds. 
You  will  do  very  well  if  you  average  a  dozen  a  day  during  the 
seasons.  I  doubt  whether  any  collector  ever  averaged  as  many 
the  year  around ;  it  would  be  over  four  thousand  specimens 
annually.  The  greatest  number  I  ever  procured  and  prepared 
in  one  da}?  was  forty,  and  I  have  not  often  gone  over  twenty. 
Even  when  collecting  regularly  and  assiduously  I  am  satisfied 
to  average  a  dozen  a  day  during  the  migrations,  and  one-third 
or  one-fourth  as  many  the  rest  of  the  year.  Probably  this 
implies  the  shooting  of  about  one  in  five  not  skinned  for  vari- 
ous reasons,  as  mutilation,  decay,  or  want  of  time. 

§19.  APPROACHING  BIRDS.  There  is  little  if  any  trouble  in 
getting  near  enough  to  shoot  most  birds.  With  notable  excep- 
tions, they  are  harder  to  see  when  near  enough,  or  to  hit  when 
seen;  particularly  small  birds  that  are  almost  incessantly  in 
motion.  As  a  rule — and  a  curious  one  it  is — difficulty  of 


APPROACHING   BIRDS.  31 

approach  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the  size  of  the  bird  ;  it  is  perhaps 
because  large,  conspicuous  birds  are  objects  of  more  general 
pursuit  than  the  little  ones  you  ordinarily  search  for.  The 
qualities  that  birds  possess  for  self-preservation  may  be  called 
wariness  in  large  birds,  shyness  in  small  ones.  The  former 
make  off  knowingly  from  a  suspicious  object ;  the  latter  fly 
from  anything  that  is  strange  to  them,  be  it  dangerous  or  not. 
This  is  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  behavior  of  small  birds  in 
the  wilderness,  as  contrasted  with  their  actions  about  towns ; 
singular  as  it  may  seem  they  are  more  timid  under  the  former 
circumstances  than  when  grown  accustomed  to  the  presence  of 
man.  It  is  just  the  reverse  with  a  hawk  or  raven,  for  instance  ; 
in  populous  districts  they  spend  much  of  their  time  in  trying 
to  save  their  skins,  while  in  a  new  country  they  have  not  learned, 
like  Indians,  that  a  white  man  is  "mighty  uncertain."  In 
stealing  on  a  shy  bird,  you  will  of  course  take  advantage  of 
any  cover  that  may  offer,  as  inequalities  of  the  ground,  thick 
bushes,  the  trunks  of  trees  ;  and  it  is  often  worth  while  to  make 
a  considerable  detour  to  secure  unobserved  approach.  I  think 
that  birds  are  more  likely,  as  a  rule,  to  be  frightened  away  by 
the  movements  of  the  collector,  than  by  his  simple  presence, 
however  near,  and  that  they  are  more  afraid  of  noise  than  of 
mere  motion.  Crackling  of  twigs  and  rustling  of  leaves  are 
sharp  sounds,  though  not  loud  ones  ;  you  may  have  sometimes 
been  surprised  to  find  how  distinctly  you  could  hear  the  move- 
ments of  a  horse  or  cow  in  underbrush  at  some  distance. 
Birds  have  sharp  ears  for  such  sounds.  Form  a  habit  of 
stealthy  movement ;  it  tells,  in  the  long  run,  in  comparison  with 
lumbering  tread.  There  are  no  special  precautions  to  be  taken 
in  shooting  through  high  open  forest ;  you  have  onty  to  saunter 
along  with  your  eyes  in  the  tree-tops.  It  is  ordinarily  the  easiest 
and  on  the  whole  the  most  remunerative  path  of  the  collector. 
In  traversing  fields  and  meadows  move  briskly,  your  principal 
object  being  to  flush  birds  out  of  the  grass  ;  and  as  most,  of 
j^our  shots  will  be  snap  ones,  keep  in  readiness  for  instant 
action.  Excellent  and  varied  shooting  is  to  be  had  along  hedge 
rows,  and  in  the  rank  herbage  that  fringes  fences.  It  is  best 


32      SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS   FOR   FIELD-WORK. 

to  keep  at  a  little  distance,  yet  near  enough  to  arouse  all  the 
birds  as  you  pass  :  you  may  catch  them  on  wing,  or  pick  them 
off  just  as  they  settle  after  a  short  flight.  In  this  shooting,  two 
persons,  one  on  each  side,  can  together  do  more  than  twice  as 
much  work  as  one.  Thickets  and  tangled  undergrowth  are 
favorite  resorts  of  many  birds ;  but  when  very  close,  or,  as 
often  happens,  over  miry  ground,  they  are  hard  places  to  shoot 
in.  As  you  come  thrashing  through  the  brush,  the  little  inhab- 
itants are  scared  into  deeper  recesses ;  but  if  you  keep  still  a 
few  minutes  in  some  favorable  spot,  they  are  reassured,  and 
will  often  come  back  to  take  a  peep  at  you.  A  good  deal  of 
standing  still  will  repay  you  at  such  times ;  needless  to  add, 
you  cannot  be  too  lightly  loaded  for  such  shooting,  when  birds 
are  mostly,  out  of  sight  if  a  dozen  yards  off.  When  yourself 
concealed  in  a  thicket,  and  no  birds  appear,  you  can  often  call 
numbers  about  you  by  a  simple  artifice.  Apply  the  back  of  your 
hand  to  your  slightly  parted  lips,  and  suck  in  air ;  it  makes  a 
nondescript  "screeping"  noise,  variable  in  intonation  at  your 
whim,  and  some  of  the  sounds  resemble  the  cries  of  a  wounded 
bird,  or  a  young  one  in  distress.  It  wakes  up  the  whole  neigh- 
borhood, and  sometimes  puts  cerlaiti  birds  almost  beside  them- 
selves, particularly  in  the  breeding  season.  Torturing  a 
wounded  bird  to  make  it  scream  in  agony  accomplishes  the 
same  result,  but  of  course  is  only  permissible  under  great  exi- 
gency. In  penetrating  swamps  and  marshes,  the  best  advice 
I  can  give  you  is  to  tell  you  to  get  along  the  best  way  you  can. 
Shooting  on  perfectly  open  ground  offers  much  the  same  case  ; 
you  must  be  left  to  your  own  devices.  I  will  say.  however,  you 
can  ride  on*  horseback,  or  even  in  a  buggy,  nearer  birds  than 
they  will  allow  you  to  walk  up  to  them.  Sportsmen  take  advan- 
tage of  this  to  get  within  a  shot  of  the  upland  plover,  usually  a 
very  wary  bird  in  populous  districts  ;  I  have  driven  right  into 
a  flock  of  wild  geese  ;  in  California  they  often  train  a  bullock  to 
graze  gradually  up  to  geese,  the  gunner  being  hidden  by  its 
body.  There  is  one  trick  worth  knowing  ;  it  is  not  to  let  a  bird 
that  has  seen  you  know  by  your  action  that  you  have  seen  it, 
but  to  keep  on  unconcernedly,  gradually  sidling  nearer.  I  have 


RECOVERING   BIRDS. KILLING   WOUNDED   BIRDS.       33 

secured  many  hawks  in  this  way,  when  the  bird  would  have 
flown  off  at  the  first  step  of  direct  approach.  Numberless 
other  little  arts  will  come  to  you  as  your  wood-craft  matures. 

§20.  RECOVERING  BIRDS.  It  is  not  always  that  you. secure  the 
birds  you  kill ;  you  may  not  be  able  to  find  them,  or  you  may 
see  them  lying,  perhaps  but  a  few  feet  off,  in  a  spot  practically 
inaccessible.  Under  such  circumstances  a  retriever  does  excel- 
lent service,  as  already  hinted ;  he  is  equally  useful  when  a 
bird  properly  "marked  down"  is  not  found  there,  having  flut- 
tered or  run  away  and  hidden  elsewhere.  The  most  difficult 
of  all  places  to  find  birds  is  among  reeds,  the  eternal  sameness 
of  which  makes  it  almost  impossible  to  rediscover  a  spot 
whence  the  eye  has  once  wandered,  while  the  peculiar  growth 
allows  birds  to  slip  far  down  out  of  sight.  In  rank  grass  or 
weeds,  when  you  have  walked  up  with  your  eye  fixed  on  the 
spot  where  the  bird  seemed  to  fall,  yet  failed  to  discover  it, 
drop  your  cap  or  handkerchief  for  a  mark,  and  hunt  around 
it  as  a  centre,  in  enlarging  circles.  In  thickets,  make  a  "bee 
line"  for  the  spot,  if  possible  keeping  your  eye  on  the  spray 
from  which  the  bird  fell,  and  not  forgetting  where  you  stood 
on  firing ;  you  may  require  to  come  back  to  the  spot  and  take 
a  new  departure.  You  will  not  seldom  see  a  bird  just  shot 
at  fly  off  as  if  unharmed,  when  really  it  will  drop  dead  in  a 
few  moments.  In  all  cases  therefore  when  the  bird  does  not 
drop  at  the  shot,  follow  it  with  your  eyes  as  far  as  you  can ; 
if  you  see  it  finally  drop,  or  even  flutter  languidly  downward, 
mark  it  on  the  principles  just  mentioned,  and  go  in  search. 
Make  every  endeavor  to  secure  wounded  birds,  on  the  score 
of  humanity ;  they  should  not  be  left  to  pine  away  and  die  in 
lingering  misery  if  it  can  possibly  be  avoided. 

§21.  KILLING  WOUNDED  BIRDS.  You  will  often  recover 
winged  birds,  as  full  of  life  as  before  the  bone  was  broken ; 
and  others  too  grievously  hurt  to  fly,  yet  far  from  death.  Your 
object  is  to  kill  them  as  quickly  and  .painlessly  as  possible, 
without  injuring  the  plumage.  This  is  to  be  accomplished, 

MANUAL.         3 


34      SUGGESTIONS    AND    DIRECTIONS   FOR    FIELD-WORK. 

with  all  small  birds,  by  suffocation.  The  respiration  and  cir- 
culation of  birds  is  very  active,  and  most  of  them  die  in  a  few 
moments  if  the  lungs  are  so  compressed  that  they  cannot 
breathe.  Squeeze  the  bird  tightly  across  the  chest,  under  the 
wings,  thumb  on  one  side,  middle  finger  on  the  other,  forefin- 
ger pressed  in  the  hollow  at  the  root  of  the  neck,  between  the 
forks  of  the  merrythought.  Press  firmly,  hard  enough  to  fix 
the  chest  immovably  and  compress  the  lungs,  but  not  to  break 
in  the  ribs.  The  bird  will  make  vigorous  but  ineffectual  efforts 
to  breathe,  when  the  muscles  will  contract  spasmodically  ;  but 
in  a  moment  more,  the  system  relaxes  with  a  painful  shiver, 
light  fades  from  the  eyes,  and  the  lids  close.  I  assure  you,  it 
will  make  you  wince  the  first  few  times  ;  you  had  better  habit- 
ually hold  the  poor  creature  behind  you.  You  can  tell  by  its 
limp  feel  and  motionlessness  when  it  is  dead,  without  watching 
the  sad  struggle.  Large  birds  obviously  cannot  be  dealt  with 
in  this  way ;  I  would  as  soon  attempt  to  throttle  a  dog  as  a 
loon,  for  instance,  upon  which  all  the  pressure  you  can  give 
makes  no  sensible  impression.  A  winged  hawk,  again,  will 
throw  itself  on  its  back  as  you  come  up,  and  show  such  good 
fight  with  beak  and  talons,  that  you  may  be  quite  severely 
scratched  in  the  encounter ;  meanwhile,  the  struggling  bird 
may  be  bespattering  its  plumage  with  blood.  In  such  a  case 
—  in  any  case  of  a  large  bird  making  decided  resistance  —  I 
think  it  best  to  step  back  a  few  paces  and  settle  the  matter 
with  a  light  charge  of  mustard-seed.  Any  large  bird  once 
secured  may  be  speedily  dispatched  by  stabbing  to  the  heart 
with  some  slender  instrument  thrust  in  under  the  wing  —  care 
must  be  taken  too  about  the  bleeding  ;  or,  it  may  be  instantly 
killed  by  piercing  the  brain  with  a  knife  introduced  into  the 
mouth  and  drawn  upward  and  obliquely  backward  from  the 
palate.  The  latter  method  is  preferable,  as  it  leaves  no  out- 
ward sign,  and  causes  no  bleeding  to  speak  of.  With  your 
thumb,  you  may  indent  the  back  part  of  a  bird's  skull  so  as  to 
compress  the  cerebellum  ;  if  you  can  get  deep  enough  in,  with- 
out materially  disordering  the  plumage,  or  breaking  the  skin, 
the  method  is  unobjectionable. 


HANDLING  BLEEDING   BIRDS.  35 

§22.  HANDLING  BLEEDING  BIRDS.  Bleeding  depends  alto- 
gether upon  the  part  or  organ  wounded ;  but  other  things 
being  equal,  violence  of  the  haemorrhage  is  usually  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  shot-hole ;  when  mustard-seed  is 
used  it  is  ordinarily  very  trifling,  if  it  occur  at  all.  Blood 
flows  oftener  from  the  orifice  of  exit  of  a  shot,  than  from  the 
wound  of  entrance,  for  the  latter  is  usually  plugged  with  a 
little  wad  of  feathers  driven  in.  Bleeding  from  the  mouth  or 
nostrils  is  the  rule  when  the  lungs  are  wounded.  When  it 
occurs,  hold  up  the  bird  by  the  feet,  and  let  it  drip  ;  a  general 
squeeze  of  the  body  in  that  position  will  facilitate  the  drainage. 
In  general,  hold  a  bird  so  that  a  bleeding  place  is  most  depend- 
ent ;  then,  pressure  about  the  part  will  help  the  flow.  A  "  gob  " 
of  blood,  which  is  simply  a  forming  clot,  on  the  plumage  may 
often  be  dextrously  flipped  almost  clean  away  with  a  snap  of 
the  finger.  It  is  first-rate  practice  to  take  cotton  and  forceps 
into  the  field  to  plug  up  shot-holes,  and  stop  the  mouth,  nos- 
trils and  vent  on  the  spot.  I  follow  the  custom  of  the  books 
in  recommending  this,  but  I  will  confess  I  have  rarely  done 
it  myself,  and  I  suspect  that  only  a  few  of  our  most  leisurely 
and  elegant  collectors  do  so  habitually.  Shot-holes  may  be 
found  by  gently  raising  the  feathers,  or  blowing  them  aside ; 
you  can  of  course  get  only  a  tiny  plug  into  the  wound  itself,  but 
it  should  be  one  end  of  a  sizable  pledget,  the  rest  lying  fluffy 
among  the  feathers.  In  stopping  the  mouth  or  vent,  ram  the 
fluff,  of  cotton,  entirely  inside.  You  cannot  conveniently  stop 
up  the  nostrils  of  small  birds  separately;  but  take  a  light 
cylinder  of  cotton,  lay  it  transversely  across  the  base  of  the  up- 
per mandible,  closely  covering  the  nostrils,  and  confine  it  there 
by  tucking  each  end  tightly  into  the  corner  of  the  mouth.  In 
default  of  such  nice  fixing  as  this,  a  pinch  of  dry  loam  pressed 
on  a  bleeding  spot  will  plaster  itself  there  and  stop  further  mis- 
chief. Never  try  to  wipe  off  fresh  blood  that  has  already  wetted 
the  plumage  ;  }TOU  will  only  make  matters  worse.  Let  it  dry  on, 
and  then — but  the  treatment  of  bloodstains,  and  other  soilings 
of  plumage,  is  given  beyond. 


36      SUGGESTIONS    AND   DIRECTIONS    FOR   FIELD-WORK. 

§23.  CARRYING  BIRDS  HOME  SAFE.  Suppose  you  have  se- 
cured a  fine  specimen,  very  likely  without  a  soiled  or  ruffled 
feather ;  your  next  care  will  be  to  keep  it  so  till  you  are  ready 
to  skin  it.  But  if  you  pocket  or  bag  it  directly,  it  will  be  a 
sorry  looking  object  before  you  get  home.  Each  specimen 
must  be  separately  cared  for,  by  wrapping  in  stout  paper ; 
writing  paper  is  as  good  as  any,  if  not  the  best.  It  will 
repay  you  to  prepare  a  stock  of  paper  before  starting  out ; 
your  most  convenient  sizes  are  those  of  a  half  sheet  of  note, 
of  letter,  and  of  cap  respectively.  Either  take  these,  or  fold 
and  cut  newspaper  to  correspond  ;  besides,  it  is  always  well  to 
have  a  whole  newspaper  or  two  for  large  birds.  Plenty  of 
paper  will  go  in  the  breast  pockets  of  the  shooting  coat. 
Make  a  "cornucopia"  —  the  simplest  thing  in  the  world,  but, 
like  tying  a  particular  knot,  hard  to  explain.  Setting  the 
wings  closely,  adjusting  disturbed  feathers,  and  seeing  that  the 
bill  points  straight  forward,  thrust  the  bird  head  first  into  one 
of  these  paper  cones,  till  it  will  go  no  further,  being  bound  by 
the  bulge  of  the  breast.  Let  the  cone  be  large  enough  for  the 
open  end  to  fold  over  or  pinch  together  entirely  beyond  the 
tail.  Be  particular  not  to  crumple  or  bend  the  tail  feathers. 
Lay  the  paper  cases  in  the  game  bag  or  great  pocket  so  that 
they  very  nearly  run  parallel  and  lie  horizontal ;  they  will 
carry  better  than  if  thrown  in  at  random.  Avoid  overcrowding 
the  packages,  as  far  as  is  reasonably  practicable ;  moderate 
pressure  will  do  no  harm,  as  a  rule,  but  if  great  it  may  make 
birds  bleed  afresh,  or  cause  the  fluids  of  a  wounded  intestine  to 
ooze  out  and  soak  the  plumage  of  the  belly — a  very  bad  acci- 
dent indeed.  For  similar  obvious  reasons,  do  not  put  a  large 
heavy  bird  on  top  of  a  lot  of  little  ones  ;  I  would  sooner  sling 
a  hawk  or  heron  over  my  shoulder,  or  carry  it  by  hand.  If  it 
goes  in  the  bag,  see  that  it  gets  to  the  bottom.  Avoid  putting 
birds  in  pockets  that  are  close  about  your  person ;  they  are 
almost  always  unduly  pressed,  and  may  gain  just  enough  addi- 
tional warmth  from  your  body  to  make  them  begin  to  decompose 
before  you  can  get  at  skinning  them.  Handle  birds  no  more 
than  is  necessary,  especially  white  plumaged  ones  ;  ten  to  one 


GETTING   YOUR   BIRDS    HOME.  37 

your  hands  are  powder-begrimed  ;  and  besides,  even  the  warmth 
and  moisture  of  your  palms  may  tend  to  injure  a  delicate  feath- 
ering. Ordinarily  pick  up  a  bird  by  the  feet  or  bill ;  as  you 
need  both  hands  to  make  the  cornucopia,  let  the  specimen  dan- 
gle by  the  toes  from  your  teeth  while  you  are  so  employed. 
In  catching  at  a  wounded  bird,  aim  to  cover  it  entirely  with 
your  hand  :  but  whatever  you  do,  never  seize  it  by  the  tail,  which 
then  will  often  be  left  in  your  hands  for  your  pains.  Never 
grasp  wing  tips  or  tail  feathers  ;  these  large  flat  quills  would 
get  a  peculiar  crimping  all  along  the'webs,  very  difficult  to 
efface.  Finally,  I  would  add  there  is  a  certain  knack  or  art  in 
manipulating,  either  of  a  dead  bird  or  a  birdskin,  by  which  }^ou 
may  handle  it  with  seeming  carelessness  and  perfect  impunity  ; 
whilst  the  most  gingerly  fingering  of  an  inexperienced  person 
will  leave  its  rude  trace.  You  will  naturally  acquire  the  cor- 
rect touch  ;  but  it  can  be  neither  taught  nor  described. 

§24.  A  SPECIAL  CASE.  While  the  ordinary  run  of  laud  birds 
will  be  brought  home  in  good  order  by  the  foregoing  method, 
some  require  special  precautions.  I  refer  to  seabirds,  such  as 
gulls,  terns,  petrels,  etc.,  shot  from  a  boat.^  In  the  first  place, 
the  plumage  of  most  of  them  is,  in  part  at  least,  white  and  of  ex- 
quisite purity.  Then,  fish-eating  birds  usually  vomit  and  purge 
when  shot.  They  are  necessarily  fished  all  dripping  from  the 
water.  They  are  too  large  for  pocketing.  If  you  put  them  on 
the  thwarts  or  elsewhere  about  the  boat,  they  usually  fall  off,  or 
are  knocked  off,  into  the  bilge  water ;  if  you  stow  them  in  the 
cubbjvhole,  they  will  assuredly  soil  by  mutual  pressure,  or  by 
rolling  about.  It  will  repay  you  to  pick  them  from  the  water 
by  the  bill,  and  shake  off  all  the  water  you  can ;  hold  them  up, 
or  let  some  one  do  it,  till  they  are  tolerably  dry ;  plug  the 
mouth,  nostrils  and  vent,  if  not  also  shot-holes  ;  wrap  each 
one  separately  in  a  cloth  (not  paper)  or  a  mass  of  tow,  and 
pack  steadily  in  a  covered  box  or  basket  taken  on  board  for 
this  purpose. 

§25.    HYGIENE   OF  COLLECTORSHIP.      It   is  unnecessary  to 


38      SUGGESTIONS    AND   DIRECTIONS    FOR   FIELD-WOKK. 

speak  of  the  healthfullness  of  a  pursuit  that,  like  the  collector's 
occupation,  demands  regular  bodily  exercise,  and  at  the  same 
time  stimulates  the  mind  by  supplying  an  object,  thus  calling 
the  whole  system  into  exhilarating  action.  Yet  collecting  has 
its  perils,  not  to  be  overlooked  if  we  would  adequately  guard 
against  them — as  fortunately  we  may,  in  most  cases,  by  sim- 
ple precautions.  The  dangers  of  taxidermy  itself  are  else- 
where noticed ;  besides  these,  the  collector  is  exposed  to  vicis- 
situdes of  the  weather,  may  endure  great  fatigue,  may  breathe 
miasm,  and  may  be  mechanically  injured.  ACCIDENTS  from 
the  gun  have  been  already  treated ;  a  few  special  rules  will 
render  others  little  liable  to  occur.  The  secret  of  safe  climbing 
is  never  to  relax  one  hold  until  another  is  secured ;  it  is  in 
spirit  equally  applicable  to  scrambling  over  rocks,  a  particu- 
larly difficult  thing  to  do  safely  with  a  loaded  gun.  Test  rot- 
ten, slippery  or  otherwise  suspicious  holds  before  trusting 
them.  In  lifting  the  body  up  anywhere  keep  the  mouth  shut, 
breathe  through  the  nostrils,  and  go  slowly.  In  swimming, 
waste  no  strength  unnecessarily  in  trying  to  stem  a  current ; 
yield  partly,  and  land  obliquely  lower  down ;  if  exhausted, 
float — the  slightest  motion  of  the  hands  will  ordinarily  keep 
the  face  above  wat^r;  and  in  any  event  keep  your  wits  col- 
lected. In  fording  deeply  a  heavy  stone  will  strengthen  your 
position.  Never  sail  a  boat  experimentally ;  if  you  are  no 
sailor  take  one  with  you  or  stay  on  land.  In  crossing  a  high, 
narrow  footpath  never  look  lower  than  your  feet ;  the  muscles 
will  work  true,  if  not  confused  with  faltering  instructions  from 
a  giddy  brain.  On  soft  ground-,  see  what,  if  anything,  has 
preceded  you ;  large  hoof  marks  generally  mean  that  the  way 
is  safe ;  if  none  are  found,  inquire  for  yourself  before  going 
on.  Quicksand  is  the  most  treacherous,  because  far  more  dan- 
gerous than  it  looks ;  but  I  have  seen  a  mule's  ears  finally 
disappear  in  genuine  mud.  .  Cattle  paths,  however  erratic,  com- 
monly prove  the  surest  way  out  of  a  difficult  place,  whether  of 
uncertain  footing  or  dense  undergrowth.  MIASM  :  Unguarded 
exposure  in  malarious  regions  usually  entails  sickness,  often 
preventable,  however,  by  due  precautions.  It  is  worth  knowing 


HYGIENIC   NOTES.  39 

in  the  first  place  that  miasmatic  poison  is  most  powerful  between 
sunset  and  sunrise  —  more  exactly,  from  the  damp  of  the 
evening  until  night  vapors  are  dissipated ;  we  may  be  out  in 
the  daytime  with  comparative  impunity  where  to  pass  a  night 
would  be  almost  certain  disease.  If  forced  to  camp  out,  seek 
the  highest  and  dryest  spot,  put  a  good  fire  on  the  swamp  side, 
and  also,  if  possible,  let  trees  intervene.  Never  go  out  on  an 
empty  stomach  ;  just  a  cup  of  coffee  and  a  crust  may  make  a 
decided  difference.  Meet  the  earliest  unfavorable  symptoms 
with  quinine — I  should  rather  say,  if  unacclimated,  antici- 
pate them  with  this  invaluable  agent.  Endeavor  to  maintain 
high  health  of  all  functions  by  the  natural  means  of  regularity 
and  temperance  in  diet,  exercise  and  repose.  "TAKING  COLD  :" 
This  vague  "household  word"  indicates  one  or  more  of  a  long 
varied  train  of  unpleasant  affections,  nearly  always  traceable 
to  one  or  the  other  of  only  two  causes  :  sudden  change  of  tem- 
perature, and  unequal  distribution  of  temperature.  No  ex- 
tremes of  heat  or  cold  can  alone  effect  this  result ;  persons 
frozen  to  death  do  not  "take  cold"  during  the  process.  But 
if  a  part  of  the  body  be  rapidly  cooled,  as  by  evaporation  from 
a  wet  article  of  clothing,  or  by  sitting  in  a  draught  of  air,  the 
rest  of  the  body  remaining  at  an  ordinary  temperature  ;  or  if 
the  temperature  of  the  whole  be  suddenly  changed  by  going  out 
into  the  cold,  or,  especially,  by  coming  into  a  warm  room,  there 
is  much  liability  of  trouble.  There  is  an  old  saying — "when 
the  air  comes  through  a  hole  say  }rour  pra}^ers  to  save  your 
soul;"  and  I  should  think  almost  any  one  could  get  a  "cold" 
with  a  spoonful  of  water  on  the  wrist  held  to  a  key-hole.  Sin- 
gular as  it  may  seem,  sudden  warming  when  cold  is  more  dan- 
gerous than  the  reverse ;  every  one  has  noticed  how  soon  the 
handkerchief  is  required  on  entering  a  heated  room  on  a  cold 
day.  Frost-bite  is  an  extreme  illustration  of  this.  As  the 
Irishman  said  on  picking  himself  up,  it  was  not  the  fall,  but 
stopping  so  quickly,  that  hurt  him ;  it  is  not  the  lowering  of 
the  temperature  to  the  freezing  point,  but  its  subsequent  ele- 
vation, that  devitalizes  the  tissue.  This  is  why  rubbing  with 
snow,  or  bathing  in  cold  water,  is  required  to  restore  safely  a 


40     SUGGESTIONS    AND   DIRECTIONS    FOR   FIELD-WORK. 

frozen  part ;  the  arrested  circulation  must  be  very  gradually 
reestablished,  or  inflammation,  perhaps  mortification,  ensues. 
General  precautions  against  taking  cold  are  almost  self-evident, 
in  this  light.  There  is  ordinarily  little  if  any  danger  to  be 
apprehended  from  wet  clothes,  so  long  as  exercise  is  kept  up  ; 
for  the  "glow"  about  compensates  for  the  extra  cooling  by 
evaporation.  Nor  is  a  complete  drenching  more  likely  to  be 
injurious  than  wetting  of  one  part.  But  never  sit  still  wet ; 
and  in  changing,  rub  the  body  dry.  There  is  a  general  ten- 
dency, springing  from  fatigue,  indolence  or  indifference,  to 
neglect  damp  feet ;  that  is  to  say,  to  dry  them  by  the  fire ; 
but  this  process  is  tedious  and  uncertain.  I  would  say  es- 
pecially, off  with  the  muddy  boots  and  sodden  socks  at  once 
—  dry  stockings  and  slippers,  after  a  hunt,  may  make  just  the 
difference  of  your  being  able  to  go  out  again  or  never.  Take 
care  never  to  check  perspiration  ;  during  this  process  the  body 
is  in  a  somewhat  critical  condition,  and  sudden  arrest  of  the 
function  may  result  disastrously — even  fatally.  One  part  of 
the  business  of  perspiration  is  to  equalize  bodily  temperature, 
and  it  must  not  be  interfered  with.  The  secret  of  much  that  is 
to  be  said  about  bathing,  when  heated,  lies  here.  A  person  over- 
heated, panting  it  may  be,  with  throbbing  temples  and  a  dry 
skin,  is  in  danger  partly  because  the  natural  cooling  by  evapo- 
ration from  the  skin  is  denied,  and  this  condition  is  sometimes 
not  far  from  a  "  sunstroke."  Under  these  circumstances,  a  per- 
son of  fairly  good  constitution  may  plunge  into  the  water  with 
impunity —  even  with  benefit.  But  if  the  body  be  already  cool- 
ing by  sweating,  rapid  abstraction  of  heat  from  the  surface 
may  cause  internal  congestion,  never  unattended  with  danger. 
Drinking  ice-water  offers  a  somewhat  parallel  case  ;  even  on 
stooping  to  drink  at  the  brook,  when  flushed  with  heat,  it  is  well 
to  bathe  the  face  and  hands  first,  and  to  taste  the  water  before 
a  full  draught.  It  is  a  well  known  excellent  rule,  not  to  bathe 
immediately  after  a  full  meal ;  because  during  digestion  the 
organs  concerned  are  comparatively  engorged,  and  any  sudden 
disturbance  of  the  circulation  may  be  disastrous.  The  imper- 
ative necessity  of  resisting  drowsiness  under  extreme  cold  re- 


HUNGER   AND   FATIGUE.  41 

quires  no  comment.  In  walking  under  a  hot  sun  the  head 
may  be  sensibly  protected  by  green  leaves  or  grass  in  the  hat ; 
they  maybe  advantageously  moistened,  but  not  enough  to  drop 
about  the  ears.  Under  such  circumstances  the  slightest  giddi- 
ness, dimness  of  sight,  or  confusion  of  ideas,  should  be  taken 
as  a  warning  of  possible  sunstroke,  instantly  demanding  rest, 
and  shelter  if  practicable.  HUNGER  and  FATIGUE  are  more 
closely  related  than  they  might  seem  to  be  ;  one  is  a  sign  that 
the  fuel  is  out,  and  the  other  asks  for  it.  Extreme  fatigue, 
indeed,  clestroj^s  appetite  ;  this  simply  means,  temporary  inca- 
pacity for  digestion.  But  even  far  short  of  this,  food  is  more 
easily  digested,  and  better  relished  after  a  little  preparation 
of  the  furnace.  On  coming  home  tired  it  is  much  better  to 
make  a  leisurely  and  reasonably  nice  toilet  than  to  eat  at 
'once,  or  to  lie  still  thinking  how  tired  you  are  ;  after  a  change 
and  a  wash  you  will  feel  like  a  "new  man,"  and  go  to  table 
in  capital  state.  Whatever  dietetic  irregularities  a  high  state 
of  civilization  may  demand  or  render  practicable  a  normally 
healthy  person  is  inconvenienced  almost  as  soon  as  his  reg- 
ular meal-time  passes  without  food  ;  and  few  can  work  comfort- 
ably or  profitably  fasting  over  six  or  eight  hours.  Eat  before 
starting ;  if  for  a  day's  tramp,  take  a  lunch ;  the  most  frugal 
meal  will  appease  if  it  do  not  satisfy  hunger,  and  so  postpone 
its  urgency.  As  a  small  scrap  of  practical  wisdom,  I  would 
add,  keep  the  remnants  of  the  lunch,  if  there  are  any ;  for 
3'ou  cannot  always  be  sure  of  getting  in  to  supper.  STIMULA- 
TION :  When  cold,  fatigued,  depressed  in  mind,  and  on  other 
occasions,  you  may  feel  inclined  to  resort  to  artificial  stimulus. 
Respecting  this  many-sided  theme  I  have  a  few  words  to  offer 
of  direct  bearing  on  the  collector's  case.  It  should  be  clearly 
understood  in  the  first  place  that  a  stimulant  confers  no 
strength  whatever ;  it  simply  calls  the  powers  that  be  into 
increased  action  at  their  own  expense.  Seeking  real  strength 
in  stimulus  is  as  wise  as  an  attempt  to  lift  yourself  up  by  the 
boot-straps.  You  may  gather  yourself  to  leap  the  ditch  and 
you  clear  it ;  but  no  such  muscular  energy  can  be  sustained ; 
exhaustion  speedily  renders  further  expenditure  impossible. 


42     SUGGESTIONS   AND   DIRECTIONS   FOR   FIELD-WORK. 

But  now  suppose  a  very  powerful  mental  impression  be  made, 
say  the  circumstance  of  a  succession  of  ditches  in  front,  and 
a  mad  dog  behind ;  if  the  stimulus  of  terror  be  sufficiently 
strong,  you  may  leap  on  till  you  drop  senseless.  Alcoholic 
stimulus  is  a  parallel  case,  and  is  not  seldom  pushed  to  the 
same  extreme.  Under  its  influence  you  never  can  tell  when 
you  are  tired  ;  the  expenditure  goes  on,  indeed,  with  unnatural 
rapidity,  only  it  is  not  felt  at  the  time ;  but  the  upshot  is  you 
have  all  the  original  fatigue  to  endure  and  to  recover  from, 
plus  the  fatigue  resulting  from  over  excitation  of  the  system. 
Taken  as  a  fortification  against  cold,  alcohol  is  as  unsatisfac- 
tory as  a  remedy  for  fatigue.  Insensibility  to  cold  does  not 
imply  protection.  The  fact  is  the  exposure  is  greater  than 
before ;  the  circulation  and  respiration  being  hurried,  the  waste 
is  greater,  and  as  sound  fuel  cannot  be  immediately  supplied, 
the  temperature  of  the  body  is  soon  lowered.  The  transient 
warmth  and  glow  over,  the  system  has  both  cold  and  depres- 
sion to  endure  ;  there  is  no  use  in  borrowing  from  yourself 
and  fancying  you  are  richer.  Secondly,  the  value  of  any 
stimulus  (except  in  a  few  exigencies  of  disease  or  injury)  is 
in  proportion,  not  to  the  intensity,  but  to  the  equableness  and 
durability  of  its  effect.  This  is  one  reason  why  tea,  coffee, 
and  articles  of  corresponding  qualities,  are  preferable  to  al- 
coholic drinks  ;  they  work  so  smoothly  that  their  effect  is  often 
unnoticed,  and  they  "stay  by"  well ;  the  friction  of  alcohol  is 
tremendous  in  comparison.  A  glass  of  grog  may  help  a  vet- 
eran over  the  fence,  but  no  one,  young  or  old,  can  shoot  all 
day  on  whiskey.  I  have  had  so  much  experience  in  the  use  of 
tobacco  as  a  mild  stimulant  that  I  am  probably  no  impartial 
judge  of  its  merits :  I  will  simply  say  I  do  not  use  it  in  the 
field,  because  it  indisposes  to  muscular  activity,  and  favors  re- 
flection when  observation  is  required ;  and  because  temporary 
abstinence  provokes  the  morbid  appetite  and  renders  the  weed 
more  grateful  afterwards.  Thirdly,  undue  excitation  of  any 
physical  function  is  followed  by  corresponding  depression,  on 
the  simple  principle  that  action  and  reaction  are  equal ;  and 
the  balance  of  health  turns  too  easily  to  be  wilfully  disturbed. 


INTEMPERANCE   UNSCIENTIFIC.  43 

Stimulation  is  a  draft  upon  vital  capital,  when  interest  alone 
should  suffice ;  it  may  be  needed  at  times  to  bridge  a  chasm, 
but  habitual  living  beyond  vital  income  infallibly  entails  bank- 
ruptcy in  health.  The  use  of  alcohol  in  health  seems  practi- 
cally restricted  to  purposes  of  sensuous  gratification  on  the 
part  of  those  prepared  to  pay  a  round  price  for  this  luxury. 
The  three  golden  rules  here  are — never  drink  before  breakfast, 
never  drink  alone,  and  never  drink  bad  liquor ;  their  observ- 
ance may  make  even  the  abuse  of  alcohol  tolerable.  Serious 
objections  for  a  naturalist,  at  least,  are  that  science,  viewed 
through  a  glass,  seems  distant  and  uncertain,  while  the  joys  of 
rum  are  immediate  and  unquestionable ;  and  that  intemper- 
ance, being  an  attempt  to  defy  certain  physical  laws,  is  there- 
fore eminently  unscientific. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

REGISTRATION  AND  LABELLING. 

§26.  A  MERE  OUTLINE  of  a  field  naturalist's  duties  would  be 
inexcusably  incomplete  without  mention  of  these  important 
matters ;  and,  because  so  much  of  the  business  of  collecting 
must  be  left  to  be  acquired  in  the  school  of  experience,  I  am 
the  more  anxious  to  give  explicit  directions  whenever,  as  in 
this  instance,  it  is  possible  to  do  so. 

§27.  RECORD  YOUR  OBSERVATIONS  DAILY.  In  one  sense  the 
specimens  themselves  are  your  record  — primd  fade  evidence 
of  your  industry  and  ability  ;  and  if  labelled,  as  I  shall  presently 
advise,  they  tell  no  small  part  of  the  whole  story.  But  this  is 
not  enough  ;  indeed,  I  am  not  sure  that  an  ably  conducted  or- 
nithological journal  is  not  the  better  half  of  your  operations. 
Under  your  editorship  of  labelling  specimens  tell  what  they 
know  about  themselves  ;  but  you  can  tell  much  more  yourself. 
Let  us  look  at  a  day's  work :  — You  have  shot  and  skinned  so 
many  birds  and  laid  them  away  labelled.  You  have  made  ob- 
servations about  them  before  shooting,  and  have  observed  a 
number  of  birds  that  you  did  not  shoot.  You  have  items  of 
haunts  and  habits,  abundance  or  scarcity ;  of  manners  and  ac- 
tions under  special  circumstances,  as  of  pairing,  nesting,  lay- 
ing, rearing  young  ;  feeding,  migrating  and  what  not ;  various 
notes  of  birds  are  still  ringing  in  your  ears  ;  and  finally,  you 
may  have  noted  the  absence  of  species  you  saw  awhile  before, 
or  had  expected  to  occur  in  your  vicinity.  Meteorological  and 
topographical  items,  especially  when  travelling,  are  often  of 
great  assistance  in  explaining  the  occurrences  and  actions  of 
birds.  Now  you  know  these  things,  but  very  likely  no  one  else 
does  ;  and  you  know  them  at  the  time,  but  you  will  not  recollect 
a  tithe  of  them  in  a  few  weeks  or  months,  to  say  nothing  of 
years.  Don't  trust  your  memory ;  it  will  trip  you  up  ;  what 
(44) 


WRITE    OUT   YOUR   NOTES  !  45 

is  clear  now  will  grow  obscure ;  what  is  found  will  be  lost. 
Write  down  everything  while  it  is  fresh  in  your  mind ;  write 
it  out  in  full — time  so  spent  now  will  be  time  saved  in  the  end, 
when  you  offer  your  researches  to  the  discriminating  public. 
Don't  be  satisfied  with  a  dry-as-dust  item  ;  clothe  a  skeleton 
fact,  and  breathe  life  into  it  with  thoughts  that  glow ;  let  the 
paper  smell  of  the  woods.  There's  a  pulse  in  a  new  fact; 
catch  the  rhythm  before  it  dies.  Keep  off  the  quicksands  of 
mere  memorandum  —  that  means  something  "to  be  remem- 
bered," which  is  just  what  you  cannot  do.  Shun  abbrevia- 
tions ;  such  keys  rust  with  disuse,  and  may  fail  in  after  times 
to  unlock  the  secret  that  should  have  been  laid  bare  in  the 
beginning.  Use  no  signs*  intelligible  only  to  yourself;  your 
note-books  may  come  to  be  overhauled  by  others  whom  you 
would  not  wish  to  disappoint.  Be  sparing  of  sentiment,  a 
delicate  thing,  easily  degraded  to  drivel ;  crude  enthusiasm 
always  hacks  instead  of  hewing.  Beware  of  literary  infe- 
licities ;  "the  written  word  remains,"  it  may  be,  after  you 
have  passed  away ;  put  down  nothing  for  your  friend's  blush, 
or  your  enemy's  sneer ;  write  as  if  a  stranger  were  looking 
over  your  shoulder. 

§28.  ORNITHOLOGICAL  BOOK-KEEPING  may  be  left  to  your 
discretion  and  good  taste  in  the  details  of  execution.  Each 
may  consult  his  preferences  for  rulings,  headings,  and  blank 
forms  of  all  sorts,  as  well  as  particular  modes  of  entry.  But 
my  experience  has  been  that  the  entries  it  is  advisable  to 
make  are  too  multifarious  to  be  accommodated  by  the  most 
ingenious  formal  ruling;  unless,  indeed,  you  make  the  con- 
ventional heading  "Remarks"  disproportionately  wide,  and 
commit  to  it  everything  not  otherwise  provided  for.  My  pref- 
erence is  decidedly  for  a  plain  page.  I  use  a  strongly  bound 
blank  book,  cap  size,  containing  at  least  six  or  eight  quires  of 


*  This  direction  does  not  apply  to  a  regular  code  of  signs,  which  may  be  found 
extremely  convenient.  The  Messrs.  A.  &  E.  Newton  have,  for  example,  perfected 
a  system  of  symbols  that  leaves  little  if  anything  to  be  desired.  See  Am.  Nat. 
1872, p.  360. 


46  REGISTRATION    AND    LABELLING. 

good  smooth  paper  ;  but  smaller  may  be  needed  for  travelling, 
even  down  to  a  pocket  note-book.  I  would  not  advise  a  multi- 
plicity of  books,  splitting  up  your  record  into  different  depart- 
ments ;  let  it  be  journal  and  register  of  specimens  combined. 
(The  registry  of  your  own  collecting  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
register  of  your  cabinet  of  birds,  which  is  sure  to  include  a  pro- 
portion of  specimens  from  other  sources,  received  in  exchange, 
donated,  or  purchased.  I  speak  of  this  beyond.)  I  have  found 
it  convenient  to  commence  a  day's  record  with  a  register  of  the 
specimens  secured,  each  entry  consisting  of  a  duplicate  of  the 
bird's  label  (see  bej^ond),  accompanied  by  any  further  remarks 
I  have  to  offer  respecting  the  particular  specimens  ;  then  to  go 
on  with  the  full  of  my  day's  observations,  as  suggested  in  the 
last  paragraph.  You  thus  have  a  "register  of  collections"  in 
chronological  order,  toed  off  with  an  unbroken  series  of  num- 
bers, checked  with  the  routine  label-items,  and  continually 
interspersed  with  the  balance  of  }Tour  ornithological  studies. 
Since  your  private  field-number  is  sometimes  an  indispensable 
clew  in  the  authentication  of  a  specimen  after  it  has  left  your 
own  hands,  never  duplicate  it.  If  you  are  collecting  other  ob- 
jects of  natural  history  besides  birds,  still  have  but  one  series 
of  numbers ;  duly  enter  your  mammal,  or  mineral,  or  what- 
ever it  is,  in  its  place,  with  the  number  under  which  it  hap- 
pens to  fall.  Be  scrupulously  accurate  with  these  and  all  other 
figures,  as  of  dates  and  measurements.  Always  use  black  ink ; 
the  "fancy"  writing-fluids,  even  the  useful  carmine,  fade  sooner 
than  black,  while  lead  pencilling  is  never  safe. 

§29.  LABELLING.  This  should  never  be  neglected.  It  is 
enough  to  make  a  sensitive  ornithologist  shiver  to  see  a  speci- 
men without  the  indispensable  appendage  —  a  label.  I  am 
sorry  to  observe  that  the  routine  labelling  of  most  collections 
is  fax  from  being  satisfactory.  A  well-appointed  label  is  some- 
thing more  than  a  slip  of  paper  with  the  bird's  name  on  it,  and 
is  still  defective,  if,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  only  the  locality 
and  collector  are  added.  A  complete  label  records  the  follow- 
ing particulars: — 1.  Title  of  the  survey,  voyage,  exploration, 


LABELLING.  47 

or  other  expedition  (if  any),  during  which  the  specimen  was 
collected.  2.  Name  of  the  person  in  charge  of  the  same  (and 
it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  less  he  really  cares  about  birds, 
and  the  less  he  actually  interests  himself  to  procure  them,  the 
more  particular  he  will  be  about  this).  3.  Title  of  the  insti- 
tution or  association  (if  any)  under  the  auspices  or  patronage 
of  which  the  specimen  was  procured,  or  for  which  it  is  de- 
signed. 4.  Name  of  collector;  partly  to  give  credit  where  it 
is  due,  but  principally  to  fix  responsibility,  and  authenticate 
the  rest  of  the  items.  5.  Collector's  number,  referring  to  his 
note-book,  as  just  explained  ;  if  the  specimen  afterwards  forms 
part  of  a  general  collection  it  usually  acquires  another  num- 
ber by  new  registry ;  the  collector's  then  becoming  the  "origi- 
nal," as  distinguished  from  the  "current,"  number.  6.  Local- 

ig 

ity,  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  the  items.  A  specimen 
of  unknown  or  even  uncertain  origin  is  worthless  or  nearty  so  ; 
while  lamentable  confusion  has  only  too  often  arisen  in  orni- 
thological writings  from  vague  or  erroneous  indications  of 
locality  :  I  should  say  that  a  specimen  "not  authentic"  in  this 
particular  had  better  have  its  supposed  origin  erased  and  be  let 
alone.  Nor  will  it  do  to  say  simply,  for  instance,  "North 
America"  or  even  "United  States."  Ornithologists  generally 
know  already  the  quarter  of  the  globe  from  which  a  bird  comes  ; 
the  locality  should  be  fixed  down  to  the  very  spot.  If  this  be 
obscure  add  the  name  of  the  nearest  place  to  be  found  on  a 
fairly  good  map,  giving  distance  and  direction.  7.  Date  of 
collection  —  day  of  the  month,  and  year.  Among  other  reasons 
for  this  may  be  mentioned  the  fact  that  it  is  often  important 
to  know  what  season  a  particular  plumage  indicates.  8.  Sex, 
and  if  possible  also  age,  of  the  specimen ;  an  item  that  be- 
speaks its  own  importance.  Ornithologists  of  all  countries  are 
agreed  upon  certain  signs  to  indicate  sex.  These  are  <£  for 
male,  9  for  female;  the  symbols  respectively  of  Mars  and 
Venus.  Immaturity  is  often  denoted  by  the  sign  0  ;  thus,  $  0, 
young  male.  Or,  we  may  write  9  ad.,  9  yg.,  for  adult 
female,  young  female,  respectively.  It  is  preferable,  however, 
to  use  the  language  of  science,  not  our  vernacular,  and  say  $ 


48  REGISTRATION   AND   LABELLING. 

juv.  (juvenis,  young).  " Nupt"  signifies  breeding  plumage; 
"hornot."  means  a  bird  of  the  year.  9.  Measurements  of 
length,  and  of  extent  of  wings ;  the  former  can  only  be  ob- 
tained approximately,  and  the  latter  not  at  all,  from  a  prepared 
specimen.  10.  Color  of  the  eyes,  and  of  the  bill,  feet,  or  other 
naked  or  soft  parts,  the  tints  of  which  may  change  in  drying. 
11.  Miscellaneous  particulars,  such  as  contents  of  stomach, 
special  circumstances  of  capture,  vernacular  name,  etc.  12. 
Scientific  name  of  the  bird.  This  is  really  the  least  important 
item  of  all,  though  generally  thought  to  take  precedence.  But 
a  bird  labels  itself,  so  to  speak ;  and  nature's  label  may  be 
deciphered  at  any  time.  In  fact,  I  would  enjoin  upon  the  col- 
lector not  to  write  out  the  supposed  name  of  the  bird  in  the 
field,  unless  the  species  is  so  well  known  as  to  be  absolutely 
unquestionable.  Proper  identification,  in  any  case  to  which 
the  slightest  doubt  may  attach,  can  only  be  made  after  critical 
study  in  the  closet  with  ample  facilities  for  examination  and 
comparison.  The  first  eight  items,  and  the  twelfth,  usually 
constitute  the  face  of  a  label ;  the  rest  are  commonly  written 
on  the  back.  Labels  should  be  of  light  card-board,  or  very 
stiff  writing  paper  ;  they  may  be  dressed  attractively,  as  fancy 
suggests ;  the  general  items  of  a  large  number  of  specimens 
are  best  printed ;  the  special  ones  must  of  course  be  written. 
Shape  is  immaterial ;  small  "  cards"  or  "  tickets  "  are  preferred 
by  some,  and  certainly  look  very  well  when  neatly  appointed  ; 
but  I  think  on  the  whole,  that  a  shape  answering  the  idea  of  a 
"slip"  rather  than  a  "ticket"  is  most  eligible.  A  slip  about 
three  inches  long  and  two-thirds  of  an  inch  wide  will  do  very 
well  for  anything,  from  a  hawk  to  a  humming-bird.  Something 
like  the  "  shipping  tags"  used  by  merchants  is  excellent,  par- 
ticularly for  larger  objects.  It  seems  most  natural  to  attach 
the  string  to  the  left-hand  end.  The  slip  should  be  tied  so  as 
to  swing  just  clear  of  the  bird's  legs,  but  not  loose  enough  to 
dangle  several  inches,  for  in  that  case  the  labels  are  continually 
tangling  with  each  other  when  the  birds  are  laid  away  in 
drawers.  The  following  diagrams  show  the  face  and  back 
of  the  last  label  I  happened  to  write ;  they  represent  the 


HOW   TO   MEASURE    A   BIRD.  49 

size  and  shape  that  I  find  most  convenient  for  general  pur- 
poses;  while  the  "legend"  illustrates  every  one  of  the  twelve 
items  above  specified. 


g  Explorations  in  Dakota.  Dr.  Elliott  Coues,  U.  S. . 

*3 

1  No.  2655.       Butes  borealis  (Gm.)  V.  $  juv. 

1  Fort  Randall,  Mo.  R.  —  Oct.  29, 1872. 


Obverse. 


23.00  X  53.00  X  1"-50.  —  Eyes  yellowish  gray;  bill  horn-blue, 
darker  at  tip;  cere  wax-yellow;  tarsi  dull  yellowish;  claws 
bluish-black.  Stomach  contained  portions  of  a  rabbit;  also,  a 
large  tapeworm. 


Reverse. 

§30.  DIRECTIONS  FOR  MEASUREMENT  may  be  inserted  here, 
as  this  matter  pertains  rightfully  to  the  recording  of  specimens. 
The  following  instructions  are  repeated  in  substance  from  the 
"Key,"  p.  55  ;  they  apply  not  only  to  length  and  extent,  but 
to  the  principal  other  dimensions,  which  may  be  taken  at  any 
time.  For  large  birds  a  tape-line  showing  inches  and  fourths 
will  do  ;  for  smaller  ones,  a  foot-rule  graduated  for  inches  and 
eighths,  or  better,  decimals  to  hundredths,  must  be  used ;  and 
for  all  nice  measurements  the  dividers  are  indispensable. — 
"Length:"  Distance  between  the  tip  of  the  bill  and  end  of  the 
longest  tail  feather.  Lay  the  bird  on  its  back  on  the  ruler  on 
a  table ;  take  hold  of  the  bill  with  one  hand  and  of  both  legs 
with  the  other ;  pull  with  reasonable  force  to  get  the  curve  all 
out  of  the  neck ;  hold  the  bird  thus  with  the  tip  of  the  bill 
flush  with  one  end  of  the  ruler,  and  see  where  the  end  of  the 
tail  points.  Put  the  tape-line  in  place  of  the  ruler,  in  the 
same  way,  for  larger  birds.  —  "Extent:"  Distance  between 
the  tips  of  the  outspread  wings.  They  must  be  fully  out- 
stretched, with  the  bird  on  its  back,  crosswise  on  the  ruler,  its 
bill  pointing  to  your  breast.  Take  hold  of  right  and  left  meta- 
carpus with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  your  left  and  right 


50  EEGISTRATION   AND   LABELLING. 

hand  respectively,  stretch  with  reasonable  force,  getting  one 
wing-tip  flush  with  one  end  of  the  ruler,  and  see  how  much  the 
other  wing-tip  reaches.  With  large  birds  pull  away  as  hard 
as  you  please,  and  use  the  table,  floor  or  side  of  the  room ; 
mark  the  points  and  apply  tape-line.  —  "Length  of  wing :"  Dis- 
tance from  the  angle  formed  at  the  (carpus)  bend  of  the  wing 
to  the  end  of  the  longest  primary.  Get  it  with  compasses  for 
small  birds.  In  birds  with  a  convex  wing  do  not  lay  the  tape- 
line  over  the  curve,  but  under  the  wing  in  a  straight  line. 
This  measurement  is  the  one  called,  for  short,  "  the  wing." — 
"Length  of  tail:"  Distance  from  the  roots  of  the  rectrices  to 
the  end  of  the  longest  one.  Feel  for  the  pope's  nose  ;  in  either 
a  fresh  or  dried  specimen  there  is  more  or  less  of  a  palpable 
lump  into  which  the  tail  feathers  stick.  Guess  as  near  as  you 
can  to  the  middle  of  this  lump  ;  place  the  end  of  the  ruler  op- 
posite the  point  and  see  where  the  tip  of  the  longest  tail 
feather  comes.  —  "Length  of  bill:"  Some  take  the  curve  of 
the  upper  mandible ;  others  the  side  of  the  upper  mandible 
from  the  feathers ;  others  the  gape,  etc.  I  take  the  chord  of 
the  culmen.  Place  one  foot  of  the  dividers  on  the  culmen  just 
where  the  feathers  end  ;  no  matter  whether  the  culmen  runs 
up  on  the  forehead,  or  the  frontal  feathers  run  out  on  the  cul- 
men, and  no  matter  whether  the  culmen  is  straight  or  curved. 
Then  with  me  the  length  of  the  bill  is  the  shortest  distance  from 
the  point  just  indicated  to  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  ; 
measure  it  with  the  dividers.  In  a  straight  bill  of  course  it  is 
the  length  of  the  culmen  itself;  in  a  curved  bill,  however,  it 
is  quite  another  thing.  —  "Length  of  tarsus:"  Distance  be- 
tween the  joint  of  the  tarsus  with  the  leg  above,  and  that  with 
the  first  phalanx  of  the  middle  toe  below.  Measure  it  ahvays 
with  dividers,  and  in  front  of  the  leg.  —  "Length  of  toes:" 
Distance  in  a  straight  line  along  the  upper  surface  of  a  toe 
is  from  the  point  last  indicated  to  the  root  of  the  claw  on  top. 
Length  of  toe  is  to  be  taken  ivithout  the  claw,  unless  otherwise 
specified.  —  "Length  of  the  claws:"  Distance  in  a  straight  line 
from  the  point  last  indicated  to  the  tip  of  the  claw. — "Length 
of  head"  is  often  a  convenient  dimension  for  comparison  with 


HOW   TO   MEASURE   A  BIRD.  51 

the  bill.  Set  one  foot  of  the  dividers  over  the  base  of  the 
culraen  (determined  as  above)  and  allow  the  other  to  slip 
just  snugly  down  over  the  arch  of  the  occiput;  this  is  the 
required  measurement. 


CHAPTER  V. 

INSTRUMENTS,  MATERIALS  AND  FIXTURES  FOR  PREPARING 
BIRDSKINS. 

§31.  INSTRUMENTS.  The  only  indispensable  instrument  is  a 
pair  of  scissors  or  a  knife  ;  although  practically  you  want  both 
of  these,  a  pair  of  spring  forceps  and  a  knitting-needle,  or  some 
similar  wooden  or  ivory  object,  yet  I  have  made  hundreds  of 
birdskins  consecutively  without  touching  another  tool.  Odi, 
puer,  Persicos  apparatus!  I  always  mistrust  the  emphasis  of 
a  collector  who  makes  a  flourish  of  instruments.  You  might 
be  surprised  to  see  what  a  meagre,  shabby-looking  kit  our  best 
taxidermists  work  with.  Stick  to  your  scissors,  knife,  forceps 
and  needle.  But  you  may  as  well  buy,  at  the  outset,  a  com- 
mon dissecting  case,  just  what  medical  students  begin  business 
with  ;  it  is  very  cheap,  and  if  there  are  some  unnecessary  things 
in  it,  it  makes  a  nice  little  box  in  which  to  keep  your  tools. 
The  case  contains,  among  other  things,  several  scalpels,  just 
the  knives  you  want ;  a  "  cartilage-knife,"  which  is  nothing 
but  a  stout  scalpel,  suitable  for  large  birds ;  the  best  kind  of 
scissors  for  your  purpose,  with  short  blades  and  long  handles 
—  if  "  kneed"  at  the  hinge  so  much  the  better  ;  spring  forceps, 
the  very  thing ;  a  blow-pipe,  useful  in  many  ways  and  an- 
swers well  for  a  knitting-needle  ;  and  some  little  steel-hooks, 
chained  together,  which  you  may  want  to  use.  But  you  will 
also  require,  for  large  birds,  a  very  heavy  pair  of  scissors,  or 
small  shears,  short-bladed  and  long-handled,  and  a  stout  pair  of 
bone-nippers.  Have  some  pins  and  needles  ;  surgical  needles, 
which  cut  instead  of  punching,  are  the  best.  Get  a  hone  or 
strop, -if  you  wish,  and  a  feather  duster.  Use  of  scissors  re- 
quires no  comment ;  and  I  would  urge  their  habitual  employ 
instead  of  the  knife-blade  ;  I  do  nine-tenths  of  my  cutting  with 
scissors  and  find  it  much  the  easiest.  A  double-lever  is  twice 
as  effective  as  a  single  one,  and  besides,  you  gain  in  cutting 
soft,  yielding  substances  by  opposing  two  blades.  Moreover, 
(52) 


MATERIALS    FOR   STUFFING.  53 

scalpels  need  constant  sharpening — mine  are  generally  too 
dull  to  cut  much  with,  and  I  suppose  I  am  like  other  people — 
while  scissors  stay  sharp  enough.  The  flat,  thin  ivory  or  ebony 
handle  of  the  scalpel  is  about  as  useful  as  the  blade.  Finger- 
nails, which  were  made  before  scalpels,  are  a  mighty  help. 
Forceps  are  almost  indispensable  for  seizing  and  holding  parts 
too  small  or  too  remote  to  be  grasped  by  the  fingers.  The 
knitting-needle  is  wanted  for  a  specific  purpose  noted  beyond. 
The  shears  or  nippers  are  only  needed  for  what  the  ordinary 
scissors  are  too  weak  to  do.  Our  instruments,  you  see  now, 
are  "  a  short  horse  soon  curried." 

§32.  MATERIALS,  a.  For  stuffing.  "  What  do  you  stuff  'em 
with?"  is  usually  the  first  question  of  idle  curiosity  about 
taxidermy,  as  if  that  were  tbe  great  point ;  whereas,  the  stuff- 
ing is  so  small  a  matter  that  I  generally  "reply — "anything,  ex- 
cept brickbats  !"  But  if  stuffing  birds  were  the  final  cause  of 
Cotton,  that  admirable  substance  could  not  be  more  perfectly 
adapted  than  it  is  to  the  purpose.  Ordinary  raw  cotton  batting 
or  wadding  is  what  you  want.  When  I  can  get  it  I  never 
think  of  using  anything  else  for  small  birds.  I  would  use  it 
for  all  birds  were  expense  no  object.  Here  tow  comes  in  ;  there 
is  a  fine,  clean,  bleached  article  of  tow  prepared  for  surgical 
dressings ;  this  is  the  best,  but  any  will  do.  Some  say  chop 
your  tow  fine  ;  this  is  harmless  but  unnecessary.  A  crumpled 
newspaper,  wrapped  with  tow,  is  first-rate  for  a  large  bird. 
Failing  cotton  or  tow,  any  soft,  light,  dry  vegetable  substance 
may  be  made  to  answer,  rags,  paper,  crumbled  leaves,  fine  dried 
grass,  soft  fibrous  inner  bark,  etc. ;  the  down  of  certain  plants, 
as  thistle  and  silk-weed,  makes  an  exquisite  filling  for  small 
birds.  But  I  will  qualify  my  remark  about  brickbats  by  say- 
ing :  never  put  hair,  wool,  feathers,  or  any  other  ANIMAL  sub- 
stance in  a  birdskin  —  far  better  leave  it  empty ;  for,  as  we 
shall  see  in  the  sequel,  bugs  come  fast  enough,  without  being 
invited  into  a  snug  nest.  b.  For  preserving.  ARSENIC*  is  the 

*  "  Arsenic  "  —  not  the  pure  metal  properly  so  called,  but  arsenic  of  the  shops, 
or  arsenious  acid. 


54         MATERIALS  FOR  PREPARING  SKINS. 

great  preservative.  Use  dry  powdered  arsenic,  plenty  of  it, 
and  nothing  else.  There  is  no  substitute  for  arsenic  worthy  of 
the  name,  and  no  preparation  of  arsenic  so  good  as  the  simple 
substance.  Various  kinds  of  "arsenical  soap"  were  and  may 
still  be  in  vogue ;  it  is  a  nasty  greasy  substance,  not  fit  to 
handle  ;  and  although  efficacious  enough,  there  is  a  very  serious 
hygienic  objection  to  its  use.*  Arsenic,  I  need  not  say,  is  a 
violent  irritant  poison,  and  must  therefore  be  only  guarded; 
but  may  be  used  with  perfect  impunity.  It  is  a  very  heavy  sub- 
stance, not  appreciably  volatile  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and 
therefore  not  liable,  as  some  suppose,  to  be  breathed,  to  any 
perceptible,  much  less  injurious,  extent.  It  will  not  even  at 
once  enter  the  pores  of  healthy  unbroken  skin ;  so  it  is  no 
matter  if  it  gets  on  the  fingers.  The  exceedingly  minute 
quantity  that  may  be  supposed  to  find  its  way  into  the  system 
in  the  course  of  time  is  believed  by  many  competent  physi- 
cians to  be  rather  beneficial  as  a  tonic.  I  will  not  commit 
myself  to  this  ;  for,  though  I  never  feel  better  than  when  work- 
ing daily  with  arsenic,  I  do  not  know  how  much  my  health  is 
improved  by  the  out-door  exercise  always  taken  at  the  same 
time.  The  simple  precautions  are,  not  to  let  it  lie  too  long  in 
contact  with  the  skin,  nor  get  into  an  abrasion,  nor  under  the 
nails.  It  will  convert  a  scratch  or  cut  into-  a  festering  sore  of 
some  little  severity ;  while  if  lodged  under  the  nails  it  soon 
shows  itself  by  soreness,  increased  by  pressure  ;  a  white  speck 
appears,  then  a  tiny  abscess  forms,  discharge's  and  gets  well 
in  a  few  days.  Your  precautions  really  respect  other  persons 

*  "Strange  as  it  may  appear  to  some,  I  would  say  avoid  especially  all  the  so- 
called  arsenical  soaps;  they  are  at  best  but  filthy  preparations;  besides,  it  is  a 
fact  to  which  I  can  bear  painful  testimony  that  they  are,  especially  when  applied 
to  a  greasy  skin,  poisonous  in  the  exti'eme.  I  have  been  so  badly  poisoned,  while 
working  upon  the  skins  of  some  fat  water  birds  that  had  been  prepared  with  arsen- 
ical soap,  as  to  be  made  seriously  ill,  the  poison  having  worked  into  the  system 
through  some  small  wounds  or  scratches  on  my  hand.  Had  pure  arsenic  been 
used  in  preparing  the  skins  the  effect  would  not  have  been  as  bad,  although  gi'ease 
and  arsenic  are  generally  a  blood  poison  in  some  degree;  but  when  combined 
with  "soap"  the  effect,  at  least  as  far  as  my  experience  goes,  is  much  more  inju- 
rious." MAYNATCD,  Guide,  p.  12. 

In  endorsing  this  I  would  add,  that  the  combination  is  the  more  poisonous,  in 
all  probability,  simply  because  the  soap,  being  detersive,  mechanically,  facilitates 
the  entrance  of  the  poison,  without,  however,  chemically  increasing  its  virulence. 


POISONING   AND   CLEANING.  55 

more  than  yourself ;  the  receptacle  should  be  conspicuously  la- 
belled "POISON  !"  Arsenic  is  a  good  friend  of  ours  ;  besides 
preserving  our  birds,  it  keeps  busybodies  and  meddlesome 
folks  away  from  the  scene  of  operations,  by  raising  a  whole- 
some suspicion  of  the  taxidermist's  surroundings.  It  may  be 
kept  in  the  tin  pots  in  which  it  is  usually  sold  ;  but  some  shal- 
lower, broader  receptacle  is  more  convenient.  A  little  drawer, 
say  6X6  inches,  and  an  inch  deep,  to  slip  under  the  edge  of 
the  table,  or  a  similar  compartment  in  a  large  drawer,  will 
be  found  handy.  A  salt-spoon,  or  little  wooden  shovel  whit- 
tled like  one,  is  nice  to  use  it  with,  though,  in  effect,  I  always 
shovel  it  up  with  the  handle  of  a  scalpel.  As  stated,  there  is 
no  substitute  for  arsenic  ;  but  at  a  pinch  you  can  make  tempo- 
rary shift  with  the  following,  among  other  articles  : — table  salt, 
or  saltpetre,  or  charcoal  strewn  plentifully  ;  strong  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate,  brushed  over  the  skin  inside  ;  creosote ; 
impure  carbolic  acid ;  these  last  two  are  quite  efficacious,  but 
they  smell  horribly  for  an  indefinite  period.  A  bird  threatening 
to  decompose  before  you  can  get  at  it  to  skin,  may  be  saved 
for  a  while  by  squirting  weak  carbolic  acid  or  creosote  down 
the  throat  and  up  the  fundament ;  or  by  disembowelling,  and 
filling  the  cavity  with  powdered  charcoal,  c.  For  cleansing : 
Gypsum*  is  an  almost  indispensable  material  for  cleansing ' 
soiled  plumage.  The  mode  of  using  it  is  indicated  beyond. 
It  is  most  conveniently  kept  in  a  shallow  tray,  say  a  foot 
square,  and  an  inch  or  two  deep,  which  had  better,  further- 
more, slide  under  the  table  as  a  drawer ;  or  form  a  compart- 
ment of  a  larger  drawer.  Keep  gypsum  and  arsenic  in  different 
looking  receptacles,  not  so  much  to  keep  from  poisoning  }rour- 
self,  as  to  keep  from  not  poisoning  a  birdskin.  They  look 
much  alike,  and  skinning  becomes  such  a  mechanical  process 
that  JTOU  may  get  hold  of  the  wrong  article  when  your  thoughts 
are  wandering  in  the  woods.  Gypsum,  like  arsenic,  has  no 
worthy  rival  in  its  own  field  ;  some  substitutes,  in  the  order  of 

*  "Gypsum"  is  properly  native  hydrated  sulphate  of  lime ;  the  article  referred  to 
is  "  plaster  of  Paris"  or  gypsum  heated  up  to  260°  F.  (by  which  the  water  of  crys- 
tallization is  driven  off)  and  then  finely  pulverized.  When  mixed  with  water  it 
soon  solidifies,  the  original  hydrate  being  again  formed. 


56  MATERIALS   FOR   PREPARING   SKINS. 

their  applicability,  are: — calcined  magnesia  (very  good,  but 
too  light — it  floats  in  the  air,  and  makes  you  cough)  ;  bicar- 
bonate of  magnesia ;  powdered  chalk  ("prepared  chalk,"  creta 
prceparata  of  the  drug  shops  is  the  best  kind)  ;  fine  wood- 
ashes  ;  clean  dry  loam.  No  article,  however  powdery  when 
dry,  that  contains  a  glutinous  principle,  as  for  instance  gum 
arabic  or  flour,  is  admissible,  d.  For  wrapping,  you  want  a 
thin,  pliable,  strong  paper  ;  water-closet  paper  is  the  very  best ; 
newspaper  is  pretty  good.  For  making  the  cones  or  cylinders 
in  which  birdskins  may  be  set  to  dry,  a  stiffer  article  is  re- 
quired ;  writing  paper  answers  perfectly. 

§33.  INDEPENDENT  PARAGRAPH.  Naturalists  habitually  carry 
a  pocket  lens,  much  as  other  people  do  a  watch.  You  will  find 
a  magnifying  glass  very  convenient  in  your  search  for  the  sex- 
ual organs  of  small  birds  when  obscure,  as  they  frequently  are, 
out  of  the  breeding  season  ;  in  picking  lice  from  plumage,  to 
send  to  your  entomological  friend,  who  will  very  likely  pro- 
nounce them  to  be  of  a  "new  species  ; "  and  for  other  purposes. 

§34.  FIXTURES.  When  travelling,  your  fixtures  must  ordi- 
narily be  limited  to  a  collecting-chest ;  you  will  have  to  skin 
'birds  on  the  top  of  this,  on  the  tail-board  of  a  wagon,  or  on 
your  lap,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  chest  should  be  very  sub- 
stantial —  iron-bound  is  best ;  strong  as  to  hinges  and  lock — 
and  have  handles.  A  good  size  is  30X18X18  inches.  Let  it 
be  fitted  with  a  set  of  trays ;  the  bottom  one  say  four  inches 
deep  ;  the  rest  shallower ;  the  top  one  very  shallow,  and  divi- 
ded into  compartments  for  your  tools  and  materials,  unless 
you  fix  these  on  the  under  side  of  the  lid.  Start  out  with 
all  the  trays  full  of  cotton  or  tow.  At  home,  have  a  room  to 
yourself,  if  possible ;  taxidermy  makes  a  mess  to  which  your 
wife  may  object,  and  arsenic  must  not  come  in  the  way  of  chiL 
dren.  At  any  rate  have  your  own  table.  I  prefer  plain  deal 
that  may  be  scrubbed  when  required  ;  great  cleanliness  is  indis- 
pensable, especially  when  doing  much  work  in  hot  weather,  for 
the  place  soon  smells  sour  if  neglected.  I  use  no  special  re- 


WORKING  TABLE.  57 

ccptacle  for  offal,  for  this  only  makes  another  article  to  -be 
cleaned  ;  lay  down  a  piece  of  paper  for  the  refuse,  and  throw 
the  whole  away.  A  perfectly  smooth  surface  is  desirable.  I 
generally  have  a  large  pane  of  window  glass  on  the  table  be- 
fore me.  It  will  really  be  found  advantageous  to  have  a  scale 
of  inches  scratched  on  the  edge  of  the  table ;  only  a  small  part 
of  it  need  be  fractionally  subdivided ;  this  replaces  the  foot- 
rule  and  tape-line,  just  as  the  tacks  of  a  dry  goods  counter 
answer  for  the  yardstick.  You  will  find  it  worth  while  to  rig 
some  sort  of  a  derrick  arrangement,  which  you  can  readily 
devise,  on  one  end  of  the  table,  to  hitch  your  hook  to,  if  you 
hang  your  birds  up  to  skin  them ;  they  should  swing  clear  of 
everything.  The  table  should  have  a  large  general  drawer, 
with  the  little  drawer  for  gypsum  and  arsenic  already  men- 
tioned, unless  these  be  kept  elsewhere.  Stuffing  may  be  kept 
in  a  box  under  the  table,  and  make  a  nice  footstool ;  or  in  a 
bag  slung  to  the  table  leg. 

§35.  QUERY  :  Have  you  cleansed  the  bird's  plumage  ?  Have 
you  plugged  the  mouth,  nostrils  and  vent  ?  Have  you  meas- 
ured the  specimen  and  noted  the  color  of  the  eyes,  bill  and 
feet,  and  prepared  the  labels,  and  made  the  entry  in  the  regis- 
ter? Have  you  got  all  your  apparatus  within  arm's  length? 
Then  we  are  ready  to  proceed. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

HOW  TO  MAKE  A  BIRDSKIN. 

A.    The  regular  process. 

§36.  LAY  THE  BIRD  on  its  back,  the  bill  pointing  to  your 
right  *  elbow.  Take  the  scalpel  like  a  pen,  with  edge  of  blade 
uppermost,  and  run  a  straight  furrow  through  the  feathers 
along  the  middle  line  of  the  belly,  from  end  of  the  breast  bone 
to  the  anus.  Part  the  feathers  completely,  and  keep  them 

parted,  t 

Observe  a  strip  of  skin  either  perfectly  naked,  or  only  cov- 
ered with  short  down;  this  is  the  line  for  incision.  Take 
scissors,  stick  in  the  pointed  blade  just  over  the  end  of  the 
breast  bone,  cut  in  a  straight  line  thence  to  and  into  the  anus  ; 
cut  extremely  shallow.  J 

Take  the  forceps  in  your  left  hand,  and  scalpel  in  your  right, 
both  held  pen-wise,  and  with  the  forceps  seize  and  lift  up  one 
of  the  edges  of  the  cut  skin,  gently  pressing  away  the  belly- 
walls  with  the  scalpel-point ;  no  cutting  is  required ;  the  skin 
may  be  peeled  off  without  trouble.  Skin  away  till  you  meet 
an  obstacle  ;  it  is  the  thigh.  Lay  down  the  instruments  ;  with 
your  left  hand  take  hold  of  the  leg  outside  at  the  shank ;  put 

*  Reverse  this  and  following  directions  for  position,  if  you  are  left-handed. 

fThe  motion  is  exactly  like  stroking' the  right  and  left  sides  of  a  moustache 
apart;  you  would  never  dress  the  hairs  smoothly  away  from  the  middle  line,  by 
poking  from  ends  to  root;  nor  will  the  feathers  stay  aside,  unless  stroked  away 
from  base  to  tips. 

J  The  skin  over  the  belly  is  thin  as  tissue  paper  in  a  small  bird;  the  chances  are 
you  will  at  first  cut  the  walls  of  the  belly  too,  opening  the  cavity;  this  is  no  great 
matter,  for  a  pledget  of  cotton  will  keep  the  bowels  in;  nevertheless,  try  to  di- 
vide skin  only.  Reason  for  cutting  into  anus :  this  orifice  makes  a  nice  natural 
termination  of  the  incision,  buttonhole-wise,  and  may  keep  the  end  of  the  cut 
from  tearing  around  the  root  of  the  tail.  Reason  for  beginning  to  cut  over  the 
edge  of  the  sternum :  the  muscular  walls  of  the  belly  are  very  thin,  and  stick  so 
close  to  the  skin  that  you  may  be  in  danger  of  attempting  to  remove  them  with 
the  skin,  instead  of  removing  the  skin  from  them;  whereas,  you  cannot  remove 
anything  but  skin  from  over  the  breast  bone,  so  you  have  a  guide  at  the  start. 
You  can  tell  skin  from  belly-walls,  by  its  livid,  translucent  whitishness  instead  of 
redness. 

(58) 


PROCESS   OF   SKINNING.  59 

your  right  forefinger  under  the  raised  flap  of  skin,  and  feel  a 
bump  ;  it  is  the  knee;  push  up  the  leg  till  this  bump  comes  into 
viev^,  hold  it  so.  Take  the  scissors  in  your  right  hand  ;  tuck 
one  blade  under  the  concavity  of  the  knee,,  and  sever  the  joint 
at  a  stroke ;  then  the  thigh  is  left  with  the  rest  of  the  body, 
while  the  rest  of  the  leg  is  dissevered  and  hangs  only  by  skin. 
Push  the  leg  further  up  till  it  has  slipped  out  of  its  sheath  of 
skin,  like  a  finger  out  of  a  glove,  down  to  the  heel-joint.  You 
have  now  to  clear  off  the  flesh  and  leave  the  bone  there ;  you 
may  scrape  till  this  is  done,  but  there  is  a  better  way.  Stick 
the  dosed  points  of  the  scissors  in  among  the  muscles  just  be- 
low the  head  of  the  bone,  then  separate  the  blades  just  wide 
enough  to  grasp  the  bone  ;  snip  off  its  head  ;  draw  the  head  to 
one  side ;  all  the  muscles  follow,  being  there  attached  ;  strip 
them  dowmvard  from  the  bone ;  the  bone  is  left  naked,  with 
the  muscle  hanging  by  a  bundle  of  tendons  ("leaders")  at  its 
foot ;  sever  these  tendons  collectively  at  a  stroke.*  Draw  the 
leg  bone  back  into  its  sheath,  and  leave  it.  Repeat  all  the 
foregoing  steps  on  the  other  side  of  the  bird.  If  you  are 
bothered  by  the  skin-flaps  settling  against  the  belty-walls,  in- 
sert a  fluff  of  cotton.  Keep  the  feathers  out  of  the  wound ; 
cotton  and  the  moustache  movement  will  do  it.  Next  you 
must  sever  the  tail  from  the  body,  leaving  a  small  "pope's- 
nose"  for  the  feathers  to  stay  stuck  into.  Put  the  bird  in 
the  hollow  of  your  lightly  closed  left  hand,  tail  upward,  belly 
toward  you. ;  or,  if  too  large  for  this,  stand  it  on  its  breast  on 
the  table  in  similar  position.  Throw  your  left  forefinger  across 
the  front  of  the  tail,  pressing  a  little  backward  ;  take  the  scis- 
sors, cut  the  end  of  the  lower  bowel  free  first,  than  peck  away 
at  bone  and  muscle  with  cautious  snips,!  till  the  tail-stump  is 
dissevered  from  the  rump,  and  the  tail  hangs  only  by  skin. 
Now  you  have  the  rump-stump  protruding  naked;  the  legs 

*This  whole  performance  will  occupy  about  three  seconds,  after  practice;  and 
you  may  soon  discover  you  can  nick  off  the  head  of  the  bone  of  a  small  bird  with 
the  thumb-nail. 

t  You  will  soon  learn  to  do  it  all  at  one  stroke ;  but  you  cannot  be  too  careful  at 
first;  you  are  cutting  right  down  on  to  the  skin  over  the  top  of  the  pope's-nose, 
and  if  you  divide  this,  the  bird  will  part  company  with  its  tail  altogether. 


60  HOW   TO   MAKE   A   BIRDSKIN. 

dangling  on-  either  side  ;  the  tail  hanging  loose  over  the  bird's 
back  between  them.  Lay  down  scissors  ;  take  up  forceps*  in 
your  left  hand ;  with  them  seize  and  hold  the  stump  of  the 
rump  ;  and  with  point  or  handle  of  scalpel  in  the  other  hand, 
with  finger  tips,  or  with  thumb-nail  (best),  gently  press  down 
on  and  peel  away  skin.f  No  cutting  will  be  required  (usually) 
till  you  come  to  the  wings:  the  skin  peels  off  (usually)  as- 
easily  as  an  orange  rind ;  as  fast  as  it  is  loosened,  evert  it ; 
that  is,  make  it  continually  turn  itself  more  and  more  com- 
pletely inside  out.  Work  thus  till  you  are  stopped  by  the 
obtruding  wings.]:  You  have  to  sever  the  wing  from  the  body 
at  the  shoulder,  just  as  you  did  the  leg  at  the  knee,  and  leave 
it  hanging  by  skin  alone.  Take  your  scissors, §  as  soon  as  the 
upper  arm  is  exposed,  and  cut  through  flesh  and  bone  alike  at 
one  stroke,  a  little  below  (outside  of)  the  shoulder-joint.  Do 
the  same  with  the  other  wing.  As  soon  as  the  wings  are 
severed  the  body  has  been  skinned  to  the  root  of  the  neck ; 
the  process  becomes  very  easy  ;  the  neck  almost  slips  out  of 
its  sheath  of  itself;  and  if  you  have  properly  attended  to 
keeping  the  feathers  out  of  the  wound  and  to  continual  ever- 


*  Or  at  this  stage  you  may  instead  stick  a  hook  into  a  firm  part  of  the  rump,  and 
hang  up  the  bird  about  the  level  of  your  breast;  you  thus  have  both  hands  free  to 
work  with.  This  is  advisable  with  all  birds  too  large  to  be  readily  taken  in  hand 
and  will  help  you  at  first,  with  any  bird.  But  there  is  really  no  use  of  it  with  a 
small  bird,  and  you  may  as  well  learn  the  best  way  of  working  at  first  as  after, 
ward. 

t  The  idea  of  the  whole  movement  is  exactly  like  ungloving  your  hand  from  the 
wrist,  by  turning  the  glove  inside  out  to  the  very  finger  tips.  Some  people  say, 
pull  off  the  skin;  I  say  never  pull  a  bird's  skin  under  any  circumstances  :  push  it 
off,  always  operating  at  lines  of  contact  of  skin  with  body,  never  upon  areas  of 
skins  already  detached. 

J  The  elbows  will  get  in  your  way  before  you  reach  the  point  of  attack,  viz.,  the 
shoulder,  unless  the  wings  were  completely  relaxed  (as  was  essential,  indeed,  if 
you  measured  alar  expanse  correctly).  Think  what  a  difference  it  would  make, 
were  you  skinning  a  man  through  a  slit  in  the  belly,  whether  his  arms  were 
stretched  above  his  head,  or  pinned  against  his  ribs.  It  is  just  the  same  with  a 
bird.  When  properly  relaxed  the  wings  are  readily  pressed  away  toward  the  bird's 
head,  so  tjiat  the  shoulders  are  encountered  before  the  elbows. 

§  Shears  will  be  required  to  crash  through  a  large  arm-bone.  Or,  you  may  with 
the  scalpel  unjoint  the  shoulder.  The  joint  will  be  found  higher  up  and  deeper 
among  the  breast  muscles  than  you  might  suppose,  unless  you  are  used  to  carving 
fowls  at  table.  With  a  small  bird,  you  may  snap  the  bone  with  the  thumb-nail  and 
tear  asunder  the  muscles  in  an  instant. 


PROCESS    OF   SKINNED.  61 

sion  of  the  jskin,  you  now  find  you  have  a  naked  body  con- 
nected dumb-bell-wise  by  a  naked  neck  to  a  cap  of  reversed 
skin  into  which  the  head  has  disappeared,  from  the  inside 
of  which  the  legs  and  wings  dangle,  and  around  the  edges  of 
which  is  a  row  of  plumage  and  a  tail.*  Here  comes  up  an  im- 
portant consideration  :  the  skin,  plumage,  legs,  wings  and  tail 
together  weigh  something — enough  to  stretch^  unduly  the  skin 
of  the  neck,  from  the  small  cylinder  of  which  they  are  now 
suspended ;  the  whole  mass  must  be  supported.  For  small 
birds,  gather  it  in  the  hollow  of  your  left  hand,  letting  the 
body  swing  over  the  back  of  your  hand  out  of  the  way ;  for 
large  ones,  rest  the  affair  on  the  table  or  your  lap.  To  skin 
the  head,  secure  the  body  in  the  position  just  indicated,  by 
confining  the  neck  between  your  left  thumb  and  forefinger ; 
bring  the  right  fingers  and  thumb  to  a  cone  over  the  head,  and 
draw  it  out  with  gentle  force ;  or,  holding  the  head  itself  be- 
tween the  left  thumb  and  forefinger,  insert  the  handle  of  the 
scalpel  between  the  skin  and  skull,  and  pry  a  little,  to  enlarge 
the  neck-cylinder  of  skin  enough  to  let  the  head  pass.  It  will 
generally  J  slip  out  of  its  hood  very  readily,  as  far  as  its 
greatest  diameter  ;§  there  it  sticks,  being  in  fact  pinned  by 
the  ears.  Still  holding  the  bird  as  before,  with  the  point  of 
the  scalpel  handled  like  a  nut-picker,  or  with  your  thumb-nail, 
detach  the  delicate  membrane  that  lines .  the  ear-opening ;  do 
the  same  for  the  other  ear.  The  skull  is  then  shelled  out  to 
the  eyes,  and  will  skin  no  further  of  its  own  accord,  being 

*  You  find  that  the  little  straight  cut  you  made  along  the  belly  has  somehow  be- 
come a  hole  larger  than  the  greatest  girth  of  the  bird;  be  undismayed;  it  is  all 
right. 

t  If  you  have  up  to  this  point  properly  pushed  off  the  skin  instead  of  pulling  it, 
there  is  as  yet  probably  no  stretching  of  any  consequence;  but  in  skinning  the 
head,  which  comes  next,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  a  beginner  to  avoid  stretching 
to  an  extent  involving  great  damage  to  the  good  looks  of  a  skin.  Try  your  utmost, 
by  delicacy  of  manipulation  at  the  lines  of  contact  of  skin  with  flesh  and  only 
there,  to  prevent  lengthicise  stretching.  Crosswise  distension  is  of  no  conse- 
quence—in fact  more  or  less  of  it  is  usually  required  to  skin  the  head,  and  it  tends 
to  counteract  the  evils  of  undue  elongation. 

I  The  special  case  of  head  too  large  for  the  calibre  of  the  neck  is  treated  beyond. 

§  And  you  will  at  once  find  a  great  apparent  increase  of  amount  of  free  skin  in 
your  hand,  owing  to  release  and  extension  of  all  that  was  before  shortened  in 
length  by  circular  distension,  in  enlargement  of  the  neck-cylinder. 


62  HOW-TO   MAKE   A   BIRDSKIN. 

again  attached  by  a  membrane,  around  the  border  of  the  eye- 
socket.  Holding  the  scalpel  as  before,  run  its  edge  around  an 
arc  (a  semicircle  is  enough  to  let  you  into  the  orbit)  of  the 
circumference,  dissevering  the  membrane  from  the  bone.  Re- 
verse the  scalpel,  and  scoop  out  the  eyeball  with  the  end  of 
the  handle ;  you  bring  out  the  eye  betwixt  the  ball  of  your 
thumb  and  the  handle  of  the  instrument,  tearing  apart  the 
optic  nerve  and  conjunctival  tissue,  but  taking  care  not  to  open 
the  eyeball*  nor  lacerate  the  eyelids.  Do  the  same  with  the 
other  eye.  The  head  is  then  skinned  far  enough  ;  there  is  no 
use  of  getting  quite  to  the  base  of  the  bill.  You  have  now  to 
get  rid  of  the  brain  and  flesh  of  the  nape  and  jaws,t  and  leave 
most  of  the  skull  in  ;  the  cranial  dome  makes  the  only  perfect 
"  stuffing"  for  the  skin  of  the  head.  This  is  all  done  at  once 
by  only  four  particular  cuts.  Hold  the  head  between  your  left 
thumb  and  fingers,  the  bill  pointing  towards  you,  the  bird's 
palate  facing  you  ;  you  observe  a  space  bounded  behind  by  the 
base  of  the  skull  where  the  neck  joins,  in  front  by  the  floor  of 
the  mouth,  on  either  side  by  the  prongs  of  the  under  jaw  — 
these  last  especially  prominent.  Take  the  scissors  ;  stick  one 
blade  just  inside  one  branch  of  the  lower  jaw,  thence  into  the 
eye-socket  which  lies  below  (the  head  being  upside  down) 
thence  into  the  brain-box ;  make  a  cut  parallel  with  the  jaw, 
just  inside  of  it,  bringing  the  upper  scissor  blade  perpendicu- 
larly downward  crashing  through  the  skull  just  inside  of  the 
angle  of  the  jaw.  Duplicate  this  cut  on  the  other  side.  Con- 
nect the  anterior  ends  of  these  cuts  by  a  transverse  one  across 
the  floor  and  roof  of  the  mouth.  Connect  the  posterior  ends 
of  the  side  cuts  by  one  across  the  back  of  the  skull  near  its 
base  — just  where  the  nape-muscle  ceases  to  override  the  cra- 

*  An  eyeball  is  much  larger  than  it  looks  from  the  outside;  if  you  stick  the 
instrument  straight  into  the  socket,  you  may  punch  a  hole  in  the  ball  and  let  out 
the  water;  &  very  disagreeable  complication.  Insinuate  the  knife-handle  close  to 
the  rim  of  the  socket,  and  hug  the  wall  of  the  cavity  throughout. 

t  You  may  of  course  at  this  stage  cut  off  the  neck  at  the  nape,  punch  a  hole  in 
the  base  of  the  skull,  dig  out  the  brains,  and  scrape  away  at  the  jaw-muscles  till 
you  are  satisfied  or  tired;  an  unnecessary  job,  during  which  the  skin  may  have 
become  dry  and  shrivelled  and  hard  to  turn  right  side  out.  The  operation  de- 
scribed in  the  text  may  require  ten  seconds,  perhaps. 


PROCESS   OF   SKINNING.  63 

ninm.  You  have  enclosed  and  cut  out  a  squarish-shaped  mass 
of  bone  and  muscle,  and  on  gently  pulling  the  neck  (to  which 
of  course  it  remains  attached),  the  whole  affair  comes  out, 
bringing  the  brain  with  it,  but  leaving  the  entire  roof  of  the 
skull  supported  on  a  scaffolding  of  jaw-bone.  It  only  remains 
to  skin  the  wings.  Seize  the  arm-stump  with  fingers  or  for- 
ceps ;  the  upper  arm  is  readily  drawn  from  its  sheath  as  far  as 
the  elbow  ;  but  the  wing  must  be  skinned  to  the  wrist  (carpus 
—  "bend  of  the  wing")  ;  yet  it  will  not  come  out  so  easily, 
because  the  secondary  quills  grow  to  one  of  the  forearm  bones 
(the  ulna)  pinning  down  the  skin  the  whole  way  along  a  series 
of  points.  To  break  up  these  connections,  hold  the  upper  arm 
firmly  with  the  left  thumb  and  forefinger,  the  convexity  of  the 
elbow  looking  towards  you  ;  press  the  right  thumb-nail  closely 
against  the  back  edge  of  the  ulna,  and  strip  downward,  scrap- 
ing the  bone  with  the  nail  the  whole  way.*  If  you  only  hit 
the  line  of  adhesion,  there  is  no  trouble  at  all  about  this.  Now 
you  want  to  leave  in  one  of  the  two  forearm  bones,  to  preserve 
sufficiently  the  shape  of  the  limb,  but  to  remove  the  other,  with 
the  upper  arm  bone  and  all  the  flesh.  It  is  done  in  a  moment ; 
stick  the  point  of  the  scissors  between  the  heads  of  the  two 
forearm  bones,  and  cut  the  hinder  one  (ulna)  away  from  the 
elbow;  then  the  other  forearm  bone  (radius),  bearing  on  its 
near  end  the  elbow  and  the  whole  upper  arm,  is  to  be  stripped 
away  from  the  ulna,  taking  with  it  the  flesh  of  the  forearm, 
and  to  be  cut  off  at  its  far  end  close  to  the  wrist-joint,  one 
stroke  severing  the  bone  and  all  the  tendons  that  pass  over  the 
wrist  to  the  hand  ;  then  the  ulna,  bare  of  flesh,  is  alone  left  in, 
attached  at  the  wrist.  Draw  gently  on  the  wing  from  the  out- 
side till  it  slips  into  the  natural  position  whence  you  everted 
it.  Do  the  same  for  the  other  wing.  This  finishes  the  skin- 
ning process.  The  skin  is  now  to  be  turned  right  side  out. 
Begin  any  way  you  please,  till  you  see  the  point  of  the  bill 
reappearing  among  the  feathers ;  seize  it  with  fingers  or  for- 
ceps as  convenient,  and  use  it  for  gentle  traction.  But  by  no 
means  pull  it  out  by  holding  on  to  the  rear  end  of  the  skin  — 

*  For  special  case  of  wing  too  large  to  be  handled  thus,  see  beyond. 


64  HOW   TO   MAKE    A   BIEDSKIN. 

that  would  infallibly  stretch  the  skin.  Holding  the  bill,  make 
a  cylinder  of  your  left  hand  and  coax  the  skin  backward  with 
a  sort  of  milking  motion.  It  will  come  easily  enough,  until 
the  final  stage  of  getting  the  head  back  into  its  skull  cap  ;  this 
may  require  some  little  dexterity ;  but  you  cannot  fail  to  get 
the  head  in,  if  you  remember  what  you  did  to  get  it  out. 
When  this  is  fairly  accomplished,  you  for  the  first  time  have 
the  pleasure  of  seeing  something  that  looks  like  a  birdskin. 
Your  next*  care  is  to  apply  arsenic.  Lay  the  skin  on  its  back, 
the  opening  toward  you  and  wide  spread,  so  the  interior  is  in 
view.  Run  the  scalpel-handle  into  the  neck  to  dilate  that  cyl- 
inder until  you  can  see  the  skull ;  find  your  way  to  the  orifices 
of  the  legs  and  wings  ;  expose  the  pope's-nose  ;  thus  you  have 
not  only  the  general  skin  surface,  but  all  the  points  where  some 
traces  of  flesh  were  left,  fairly  in  view.  Shovel  in  arsenic ; 
dump  some  down  the  neck,  making  sure  it  reaches  and  plenti- 
fully besprinkles  the  whole  skull ;  drop  a  little  in  each  wing 
hole  and  leg  hole  ;  leave  a  small  pile  at  the  root  of  the  tail ; 
strew  some  more  over  the  skin  at  large.  The  simple  rule  is, 
put  in  as  much  arsenic  as  will  stick  anywhere.  '  Then  close 
the  opening,  and  shake  up  the  skin;  move  the  head  about 
by  the  bill ;  rustle  the  wings  and  move  the  legs  ;  this  distrib- 
utes the  poison  thoroughly.  If  you  have  got  in  more  than  is 
necessary,  as  you  may  judge  by  seeing  it  piled  up  dry,  any- 
where, hold  the  skin  with  the  opening  downward  over  the  poi- 
son-drawer, and  give  it  a  flip  and  let  the  superfluous  powder  fall 
out.  Now  for  the  "  make  up,"  upon  which  the  beauty  of  the 
preparation  depends.  First  get  the  empty  skin  into  good 
shape.  Let  it  lie  on  its  back  ;  draw  it  straight  out  to  its  nat- 
ural length.  See  that  the  skin  of  the  head  fits  snugly ;  that 
the  eyes,  ears  and  jaws  are  in  place.  Expand  the  wings  to 
make  sure  that  the  bone  is  in  place,  and  fold  them  so  that  the 
quills  override  each  other  naturally  ;  set  the  tail  feathers  shin- 

*  Some  direct  the  poisoning  to  be  done  while  the  skin  is  still  wrong  side  out; 
and  it  may  be  very  thoroughly  effected  at  that  stage.  I  wait,  because  the  arsenic 
generally  strews  over  the  table  in  the  operation  of  reversing  the  skin,  if  you  use 
as  much  as  I  think  advisable;  and  it  is  better  to  have  a  cavity  to  put  it  into  than  a 
surface  to  strew  it  on. 


STUFFING.  65 

glewise  also ;  draw  down  the  legs  and  leave  them  straddling 
wide  apart.  Give  the  plumage  a  preliminary  dressing ;  if  the 
skin  is  free  from  kinks  and  creases,  the  feathers  come  naturally 
into  place ;  particular  ones  that  may  be  awry  should  be  set 
right,  as  may  be  generally  done  by  stroking,  or  by  lifting  them 
free  repeatedly,  and  letting  them  fall ;  if  any  (through  care- 
lessness) remain  turned  into  the  opening,  they  should  be  care- 
fully picked  out.  Remove  all  traces  of  gypsum  or  arsenic 
with  the  feather  duster.  The  stuffing  is  to  be  put  in  through 
the  opening  in  the  belly ;  the  art  is  to  get  in  just  enough,  in 
the  right  places.  It  would  never  do  to  push  in  pellets  of  cot- 
ton, as  you  would  stuff  a  pillow-case,  till  the  skin  is  filled  up ; 
no  subsequent  skill  in  setting  could  remove  the  distortion  that 
would  result.  It  takes  just  four*  pieces  of  stuffing  —  one  for 
each  eye,  one  for  the  neck,  and  one  for  the  body ;  while  it  re- 
quires rather  less  than  half  as  much  stuffing  as  an  inexperienced 
person  might  suppose.  Take  a  shred  of  cotton  that  will  make  a 
tight  ball  as  large  as  the  bird's  eye  ;  stick  it  on  the  end  of  your 
knitting  needle,  and  by  twirling  the  needle  whilst  the  cotton  is 
confined  in  your  finger  tips,  jrou  make  a  neat  ball.  Introduce 
this  through  the  belly-opening,  into  the  eyesocket ;  if  you  have 
cut  away  skull  enough,  as  already  directed,  it  will  go  right  in ; 
disengage  the  needle  with  a  reverse  twirl,  and  withdraw  it. 
Take  hold  of  the  bill  with  one  hand,  and  with  the  forceps  in 
the  other,  dress  the  eyelids  neatly  and  naturally  over  the  elas- 
tic substance  within.  Repeat  for  the  other  eye.  Take  next  a 
shred  of  cotton  that  will  roll  into  a  firm  cylinder  rather  less 
than  the  size  of  the  bird's  neck.  Roll  it  on  the  needle  much 

*  For  any  ordinary  bird  up  to  the  size  of  a  crow.  It  is  often  directed  that  the 
leg  bones  and  wing  bones  be  wrapped  with^cotton  or  tow.  I  should  not  think  of 
putting  anything  around  the  wing  bones  of  any  bird  up  to  the  size  of  an  eagle, 
swan  or  pelican.  Examination  of  a  skinned  wing  will  show  how  extremely  com- 
pact it  is,  except  just  at  the  shoulder.  What  you  remove  will  never  make  any  dif- 
ference from  the  outside,  while  you  would  almost  inevitably  get  in  too  much,  not 
of  the  right  shape,  and  make  an  awkward  bulging  no  art  would  remedy ;  I  say, 
then,  leave  the  wings  of  all  but  the  largest  birds  empty,  and  put  in  very  little  under 
any  circumstances.  As  for  legs,  the  whole  host  of  small  perching  birds  need  no 
wrapping  whatever;  depend  upon  it  you  will  make  a  nicer  skin  without  wrapping. 
But  large  birds  and  those  with  very  muscular  or  otherwise  prominent  legs  must 
have  the  removal  of  flesh  compensated  for.  I  treat  of  these  cases  beyond. 

MANUAL.         5 


66  HOW    TO   MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

as  you  did  the  eyeball,  introduce  it  in  the  same  way,  and  ram 
it  firmly  into  the  base  of  the  skull ;  disengage  the  needle  by 
twisting  it  the  other  way,  and  withdraw  it,  taking  care  not  to 
dislodge  the  cotton  neck.  If  now  you  peep  into  the  skin  you 
will  see  the  end  of  this  artificial  neck  ;  push  it  up  against  the 
skin  of  the  breast — it  must  not  lie  down  on  the  back  between 
the  shoulders.*  The  body-wad  comes  next ;  you  want  to  imi- 
tate the  size  and  shape  of  the  bird's  trunk.  Take  a  mass  of 
cotton  you  think  will  be  enough,  and  take  about  half  of  this  ; 
that  will  be  plenty  (cotton  is  very  elastic).  It  should  make  a 
tolerably  firm  ball,  rather  egg-shaped,  swelling  at  the  breast, 
smaller  behind.  If  you  simply  squeeze  up  the  cotton,  it  will 
not  stay  compressed  ;  it  requires  a  motion  something  like  that 
which  bakers  employ  to  knead  dough  Into  the  shape  of  a  loaf. 
Keep  tucking  over  the  borders  of  the  cotton  till  the  desired 
shape  and  firmness  are  attained.  Insert  the  ball  between  the 
blades  of  the  forceps  in  such  way  that  the  instruments  con- 
fine the  folded-over  edges,  and  with  a  wriggling  motion  insin- 
uate it  aright  into  the  body.  Before  relaxing  the  forceps,  put 
your  thumb  and  forefinger  in  the  bird's  armpits,  and  pinch  the 
shoulders  together  till  they  almost  touch  ;  this  is  to  make  sure 
that  there  is  no  stuffing  between  the  shoulders  —  the  whole 
mass  lying  breastwards.  Loosen  the  forceps  and  withdraw 
them.  If  the  ball  is  Brightly  made  and  tucked  in,  the  elasticity 
of  the  cotton  will  chiefly  expend  itself  in  puffing  out  the  breast, 
which  is  just  what  is  wanted.  Be  careful  not  to  push  the  body 
too  far  in ;  if  it  impacts  against  the  skin  of  the  neck,  this  will 
infallibly  stretch,  driving  the  shoulders  apart,  and  no  art  will 
remedy  the  unsightly  gape  resulting.  You  see  I  dwell  on  this 

*  Although  a  bird's  neck  is  really,  of  course,  in  direct  continuation  of  the  back- 
bone, yet  the  natm-al  sigmoid  curve  of  the  neck  is  such  that  it  virtually  takes  de- 
parture rather  from  the  breast,  its  lower  curve  being  received  between  the  prongs 
of  the  merrythought.  This  is  what  we  must  imitate  instead  of  the  true  anatomy. 
If  you  let  the  end  of  the  neck  lie  between  the  shoulders,  it  will  infallibly  press 
them  apart,  so  that  the  interscapular  plumage  cannot  shingle  over  the  scapular  as 
it  should,  and  a  gaping  place,  showing  down  or  even  naked  skin,  will  result. 
Likewise  if  the  neck  be  made  too  large  (the  chances  are  that  way,  at  first),  the 
same  result  follows.  These  seemingly  trifling  points  are  very  important  indeed ; 
I  never  made  a  decent  birdskin  till  I  learned  to  get  the  neck  small  enough,  and  to 
shoye  the  end  of  it  against  the  breast. 


SETTING   THE    SKIN.  67 

matter  of  the  shoulders  ;  the  whole  knack  of  stuffing  correctly 
focusses  just  over  the  shoulders.  If  you  find  you  have  made 
the  body  too  large,  pull  it  out  and  make  a  smaller  one ;  if  it 
fits  nicely  about  the  shoulders  but  is  too  long  to  go  in,  or 
too  puffy  over  the  belly,  let  it  stay,  and  pick  away  shreds  at 
the  open  end  till  the  redundancy  is  remedied.  Your  bird  is 
now  stuffed.  Close  the  opening  by  bringing  the  edges  of  the 
original  cut  together.  There  is  no  use  of  sewing*  up  the  cut, 
for  a  small '  bird ;  if  the  stuffing  is  correct,  the  feathers  will 
hide  the  opening,  and  if  they  do  not,  it  is  no  matter.  You  are 
not  making  an  object  for  a  show  case,  but  for  a  naturalist's 
cabinet.  Supposing  you  to  have  been  so  far  successful,  little 
remains  to  be  done ;  the  skin  already  looks  very  much  like  a 
dead  bird  ;  you  have  only  to  give  the  finishing  touches,  and 
"set"  it.  Fixing  the  wings  nicely  is  a  great  point.  Fold 
each  wing  closely ;  see  that  the  carpal  bend  is  well  defined, 
that  the  coverts  show  their  several  oblique  rows  perfectly,  that 
all  the  quills  override  each  other  like  shingles.  Tuck  the 
folded  wings  close  up  to  the  body  —  rather  on  the  bird's  back 
than  along  its  sides  ;  see  that  the  wing  tips  meet  over  the  tail 
(under  the  tail  as  the  bird  lies  on  its  back)  ;  let  the  carpal 
angle  nestle  in  the  plumage  ;  have  the  shoulders  close  together, 
so  that  the  interscapulars  shingle  over  the  scapulars.  If  the 
wing  be  pressed  in  too  tightly,  the  scapulars  will  rise  up  on 
end ;  there  must  be  neither  furrow  nor  ridge  about  the  inser- 
tion of  the  wings  ;  every  thing  must  lie  perfectly  smooth.  At 
this  stage  of  the  process,  I  generally  lift  up  the  skin  gingerly, 
and  let  it  slip  head  first  through  one  hand  after  the  other,  press- 
ing here  or  there  to  correct  a  deformity,  or  uniformly,  to  make 
the  whole  skin  compact.  The  wings  set,  next  bring  the  legs 
together,  so  that  the  bones  within  the  skin  lie  parallel  with 
each  other;  bend  the  heel-joint  a  little,  to  let  the  tarsi  cioss 
each  other  about  their  middle ;  lay  them  sidewise  on  the  tail, 


*  But  sew  it  up,  if  you  please,  though  you  may  be  perhaps  giving  the  man  who 
subsequently  mounts  the  bird  the  trouble  of  ripping  out  the  stitches.  Stitches 
however,  will  not  come  amiss  with  a  large  bird.  I  generally,  in  such  cases,  pin  the 
edges  of  the  cut  in  one  or  more  places. 


68  HOW   TO    MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

so  that  the  naturally  flexed  toes  lie  flat,  all  the  claws  mutually 
facing  each  -other.  See  that  the  neck  is  perfectly  straight,  and, 
if  anything,  shortened  rather  than  outstretched  ;  have  the  crown 
of  the  head  flat  on  the  table,  the  bill  pointing  straight  forward,* 
the  mandibles  shut  tightly. f  Never  attempt  any  "fancy"  atti- 
tudes with  a  birdskin ;  the  simpler  and  more  compactly  it  is 
made  up  the  better.^  Finally,  I  say,  hang  over  your  bird  (if 
you  have  time)  ;  dress  better  the  feathers'  that  were  well 
dressed  before ;  perfect  every  curve ;  finish  caressingly,  and 
put  it  away  tenderly,  as  you  hope  to  be  shriven  yourself 
when  the  time  comes.  . 

There  are  several  ways  of  laying  a  birdskin.  A  common, 
easy  and  slovenly  way  is  to  thrust  it  head  first  into  a  paper  cone; 
but  it  makes  a  hollow-chested,  pot-bellied  object  unpleasant  to 
see,  and  renders  your  nice  work  on  the  make-up  futile.  A 
paper  cylinder,  corresponding  in  calibre  to  the  greatest  girth 
of  the  birdskin,  binds  the  wings  well,  and  makes  a  good  ordi- 
nary specimen  —  perhaps  better  than  the  average.  Remarking 
that  there  are  some  detestable  practices,  such  as  hanging  up 
a  bird  by  a  string  through  the  nose  (methods  only  to  be  men- 


*  Exceptions.  Woodpeckers,  ducks  and  some  other  birds  treated  of  in  §39,  are 
best  set  with  the  head  flat  on  one  side,  the  bill  pointing  obliquely  to  the  right  or 
left;  owls,  with  the  bill  pointing  straight  up  in  the  air  as  the  bird  lies  on  its  back. 

t  If  the  mandibles  gape,  run  a  thread  through  the  nostrils  and  tie  it  tightly  under 
the  bill.  Or,  since  this  injures  the  nostrils  (and  we  frequently  want  to  examine 
their  structure)  stick  a  pin  in  under  the  bill  close  to  the  gonys,  drawing  it  obliquely 
into  the  palate.  Sometimes  the  skin  of  the  throat  looks  sunken  betwixt  the  sides 
of  the  jaw.  A  mere  shred  of  cotton  introduced  with  forceps  through  the  mouth 
will  obviate  this. 

%  Don't  cock  up  the  head,  trying  to  impart  a  knowing  air— it  cannot  be  done,  and 
only  makes  the  poor  bird  look  ridiculous.  Don't  lay  the  skin  on  one  side,  with  the 
legs  in  perching  position,  and  don't  spread  the  wings— the  bird  will  never  perch  nor 
fly  again,  and  the  suggestion  is  imartistic  because  incongruous.  The  only  permis- 
sible departure  from  the  rule  of  severe  simplicity  is  when  some  special  ornament, 
as  a  fine  crest,  may  be  naturally  displayed,  or  some  hidden  markings  are  desired  to 
be  brought  out,  or  a  shape  of  tail  or  wing  to  be  perpetuated ;  but  in  all  such  cases 
the  "flowery"  inclination  should  be  sparingly  and  judiciously  indulged.  It  is, 
however,  frequently  desirable  to  give  some  special  set  to  hide  a  defect,  as  loss  of 
plumage,  etc.;  this  may  often  be  accomplished  very  cunningly,  with  excellent  re- 
sult. No  rules  for  this  can  be  laid  down,  since  the  details  vary  in  every  case;  but 
in  general  the  weak  spot  may  be  hidden  by  contracting  the  skin  of  the  place  and 
then  setting  the  bird  in  an  attitude  that  naturally  corresponds,  thus  making  a  vir- 
tue of  necessity. 


DRYING   AND   PACKING   SKINS.  69 

tioned  to  be  condemned),  I  will  tell  you  the  easiest  and  best 
way,  by  which  the  most  elegant  and  tasteful  results  are  almost 
necessarily  secured.  The  skins  are  simply  laid  away  in  cotton, 
just  as  they  come  from  your  hands.  Take  a  considerable  wad 
of  cotton,  make  a  "  bed  "  of  it,  lay  the  specimen  in,  and  tuck 
it  up  nicely  around  the  edges.  In  effect,  I  generally  take  a 
thin* sheet  of  cotton  wadding,  the  sizing  of  which  confers  some 
textile  consistency,  and  wrap  the  bird  completely  but  lightly  in 
it.  By  loosening  or  tightening  a  trifle  here  or  there,  laying 
down  a  "pillow  "or  other  special  slight  pressure,  the  most  deli- 
cate contour-lines  may  be  preserved  with  perfect  fidelity.  Un- 
necessary pother  is  sometimes  made  about  drying  skins ;  the 
fact  being  that  under  ordinary  circumstances  they  could  not  be 
kept  from  drying  perfectly  ;  and  they  dry  in  exactly  the  shape 
they  are  set,  if  not  accidentally  pressed  upon.  At  sea,  how- 
ever, or  during  unusually  protracted  wet  weather,  they  of 
course  dry  slowly,  and  may  require  some  attention  to  prevent 
mildew,  and  even  souring,  especially  in  the  cases  of  very  large, 
thick-skinned  or  greasy  specimens.  Thorough  poisoning,  and 
drying  by  a  fire,  or  placing  in  the  sun,  will  always  answer. 
Very  close  packing  retards  drying.  When  travelling  or  oper- 
ating under  other  circumstances  requiring  economy  of  space, 
you  must  not  expect  to  turn  out  your  collection  in  elegant 
order.  Perfection  of  contour-lines  can  only  be  secured  by  put- 
ting each  specimen  away  by  itself ;  undue  pressure  is  always 
liable  to  produce  unhappily  outre  configuration  of  a  skin. 
Trays  in  a  packing  box  are  of  great  service  in  limiting  possi- 
bilities of  pressure ;  they  should  be  shallow ;  for  one  four 
inches  deep  will  take  a  well  stuffed  hen  hawk,  for  example,  or 
accommodate  3-6  sparrows  a-top  r>f  each  other.  It  is  well  to 
sort  out  your  specimens  somewhat  according  to  size,  to  keep 
heavy  ones  off  little  ones ;  though  the  chinks  around  the 
former  may  usually  be  economized  with  advantage  by  packing 
in  the  less  valuable  or  the  less  neatly  prepared  of  the  latter. 
When  limited  to  a  travelling  chest,  I  generally  pass  in  the 
skins  as  fast  as  made,  packing  them  "solid"  in  one  sense,  yet 
hunting  up  a  nice  resting  place  for  each.  If  each  rests  in  its 


70  HOW   TO   MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

own  cotton  coffin,  it  is  astonishing  how  close  they  may  be  laid 
without  harm  ;  and  how  many  will  go  in  a  given  space  —  a  tray 
30X18X4  inches  will  easily  hold  three  hundred  and  fifty  birds 
six  inches  long.  As  a  tray  fills  up,  the  drier  ones  first  put  in 
may  be  submitted  to  more  pressure.  A  skin  originally  dried 
in  good  shape  may  subsequently  be  pressed  perfectly  flat  with- 
out material  injury;  the  only  thing  to  avoid  being  contortion. 
The  whole  knack  of  packing  birds  corresponds  to  that  of  filling 
a  trunk  solidly  full  of  clothes  —  as  may  easily  be  done  without 
damage  to  an  immaculate  shirt-front.  Finally,  I  would  say, 
never  put  away  a  bird  unlabelled,  not  even  for  an  hour ;  you 
may  forget  it,  or  die.  Never  tie  a  label  to  a  bird's  bill,  wing 
or  tail ;  tie  it  securely  to  both  legs  where  they  cross,  and  it  will 
be  just  half  as  liable  to  become  detached  as  if  tied  to  one  leg 
only.  Never  paste  a  label,  or  even  a  number,  on  a  bird's  plu- 
mage. Never  put  in  glass  eyes  before  mounting.  Never  paint 
or  varnish  a  bird's  bill  or  feet.  Never  replace  missing  plumage 
of  one  bird  with  the  feathers  of  another  —  no,  not  even  if  the 
birds  came  out  of  the  same  nest. 

.B.   Special  Processes ;   Complications  and  Accidents. 

§37.  THE  foregoing  method  of  procedure  is  a  routine  prac- 
tice applicable  to  three-fourths  if  not  nine-tenths  of  the  "gen- 
eral run"  of  birds.  But  there  are  several  cases  requiring  a 
modification  of  this  programme ;  while  several  circumstances 
may  tend  to  embarrass  your  operations.  The  principal  special 
•conditions  may  therefore  be  separately  treated  to  your  advan- 
tage. 

§38.  SIZE.  Other  things  being  equal,-  a  large  bird  is  more 
difficult  to  prepare  than  a  small  one.  In  one  case,  you  only 
need  a  certain  delicacy  of  touch,  easily  acquired  and  soon  be- 
coming mechanical ;  in  the  other,  demand  on  your  strength 
may  be  made,  till  your  muscles  ache.  It  takes  longer,  too  ;* 

*  The  reader  may  be  curious  to  know  something  of  the  statistics  on  this  score 
—how  long  it  ought  to  take  him  to  prepare  an  ordinary  skin.  He  can  scarcely 
imagine,  from  his  first  tedious  operations,  how  expert  he  may  become,  not  only  in 


SPECIAL   PROCESSES.  71 

I  could  put  away  a  dozen  sparrows  in  the  time  I  should  spend 
over  an  eagle,  and  I  would  rather  undertake  a  hundred  hum- 
ming birds  than  one  ostrich.  For  "large"  birds,  say  ai^thing 
from  a  hen  hawk  upward,  various  special  manipulations  I  have 
directed  may  be  foregone,  while  however  you  observe  their  gen- 
eral drift  and  intent.  You  may  open  the  bird  as  directed,  or, 
turning  it  tail  to  you,  cut  with  a  knife.*  Forceps  are  rarely 
required  —  there  is  not  much'  that  is  too  small  to  be  taken  in 
hand.  As  soon  as  the  tail  is  divided,  hang  up  the  bird  by  the 
rump,  so  you  will  have  both  hands  free.  Let  it  swing  clear  of 
the  wall  or  table,  at  any  height  most  convenient.  The  steel 
hooks  of  a  dissecting  case  are  not  always  large  enough ;'  use  a 
stout  fish-hook  with  the  barb  filed  off.  Work  with  3^0111*  nails, 
assisted  by  the  scalpel  if  necessary.  I  know  of  no  bird,  and 
I  think  there  is  none  in  this  country  at  least,  the  skin  of  which 
is  so  internally  adherent  by  fibrous  or  muscular  tissue  as  to 
require  actual  dissecting  throughout ;  a  pelican  comes  perhaps 
as  near  this  as  any  ;  but  in  many  cases  the  knife  may  be  con- 
stantly employed  with  advantage.  Use  it  with  long  clean 


beauty  of  result,  but  in  rapidity  of  execution .  I  have  seen  taxidermists  make  good 
small  skins  at  the  rate  of  ten  an  hour;  but  this  is  extraordinary.  The  quickest 
work  I  ever  did  myself  was  eight  an  hour,  or  an  average  of  seven  and  a  half  minutes 
apiece,  and  fairly  good  skins.  But  I  picked  my  birds,  all  small  ones,  well  shot, 
labelled,  measured  and  plugged  beforehand,  so  that  the  rate  of  work  was  excep- 
tional besides  including  only  the  actual  manipulations  from  first  cut  to  layin  g  away. 
No  one  averages  eight  birds  an  hour,  even  excluding  the  necessary  preliminaries 
of  cleansing,  plugging,  etc.  Four  birds  an  hour,  everything  included,  is  good 
work.  A  very  eminent  ornithologist  of  this  country,  and  an  expert  taxidermist, 
once  laid  a  whimsical  wager,  that  he  would  skin  and  stuff  a  bird  before  a  certain  t 
friend  of  his  could  pick  all  the  feathers  off  a  specimen  of  the  same  kind.  I  forget 
the  time,  but  he  won,  and  his  friend  supped  that  night  on  some  very  tough  game ! 
*  Certain  among  larger  birds  are  often  opened  elsewhere  than  along  the  belly  — 
with  what  advantage  I  cannot  say  from  my  own  experience.  Various  water  birds? 
such  as  loons,  grebes,  auks,  gulls  and  ducks  (in  fact  any  swimming  bird  with 
dense  under  plumage)  maybe  opened  along  the  side  by  a  cut  under  the  wings  from 
the  shoulder  over  the  hip  to  the  rump;  the  cut  is  completely  hidden  by  the  make-up, 
and  the  plumage  is  never  ruffled.  But  I  see  no  necessity  for  this;  for.  as  a  rule, 
the  belly  opening  can,  if  desired,  be  completely  effaced  with  due  care ;  though  a 
very  greasy  bird  with  white  under  plumage  generally  stains  where  opened,  in  spite 
of  every  precaution.  Such  birds  as  loons,  grebes,  cormorants  and  penguins  are 
often  opened  by  a  cut  across  the  fundament  from  one  leg  to  the  other;  their  con- 
formation in  fact  suggests  and  favors  this  operation.  I  have  often  seen  water 
birds  slit  down  the  back;  but  I  consider  it  very  poor  practice. 


72  HOW   TO   MAKE    A   BIKDSKIN. 

sweeping  strokes,  hugging  the  skin  rather  than  the  body.  The 
knee  and  shoulder  commonly  require  disarticulation,  unless 
you  use  bone-nippers  or  strong  shears ;  the  four  cuts  of  the 
skull  may  presuppose  a  very  able-bodied  instrument  —  even  a 
chisel.  The  wings  will  give  you  the  most  trouble,  and  they 
require  a  special  process  ;  for  you  cannot  readily  break  up  the 
adhesions  of  the  secondary  quills  to  the  ulna,  nor  is  it  desi- 
rable that  very  large  feathers  should  be  deprived  of  this  natural 
support.  Hammer  or  nip  off  the  great  head  of  the  upper  arm- 
bone,  just  below  the  insertion  of  the  breast  muscles  ;  clean 
the  rest  of  that  bone  and  leave  it  in.  Tie  a  string  around  it 
(what  sailors  call  "two  half  hitches"  gives  a  secure  hold  on 
the  bony  cylinder),  and  tie  it  to  the  other  humerus,  inside  the 
skin,  so  that  the  two  bones  shall  be  rather  less  than  their  natu- 
ral distance  apart.  After  the  skin  is  brought  right  side  out, 
attack  the  wings  thus  :  spread  the  wing  under  side  uppermost, 
and  secure  it  on  the  table  by  driving  a  tack  or  brad  through 
the  wrist-joint ;  this  fixes  the  far  end,  while  the  weight  of  the 
skin  steadies  the  other.  Raise  a  whole  layer  of  the  under 
wing  coverts,  and  make  a  cut  in  the  skin  thus  exposed,  from 
elbow  to  wrist,  in  the  middle  line  between  the  two  forearm 
bones.  Raise  the  flaps  of  skin,  and  all  the  muscle  is  laid  bare  ; 
it  is  to  be  removed.  This  is  best  done  by  lifting  each  muscle 
from  its  bed  separately,  slipping  the  handle  of  the  scalpel 
under  the  individual  bellies  ;  there  is  little  if  any  bony  attach- 
ment except  at  each  end,  and  this  is  readily  severed.  Strew 
in  arsenic ;  a  little  cotton  may  be  used  to  fill  the  bed  of  mus- 
cle removed  from  a  very  large  bird  ;  bring  the  flaps  of  skin 
together,  and  smooth  down  the  coverts  ;  you  need  not  be  par- 
ticular to  sew  up  the  cut,  for  the  coverts  will  hide  the  opening  ; 
in  fact,  the  operation  does  not  show  at  all  after  the  make- 
up. Stuffing  of  large  birds  is  not  commonly  done  with  only 
the  four  pieces  already  directed.  The  eyeballs,  and  usually 
the  neck-cylinder,  go  in  as  before  ;  the  body  may  be  filled  any 
way  you  please,  provided  you  do  not  put  in  too  much  stuffing 
nor  get  any  between  the  shoulders.  All  large  birds  had  better 
have  the  leg  bones  wrapped  to  nearly  natural  size.  Observe 


LARGE    HEADED    BIRDS.  73 

that  the  leg-muscles  do  not  form  a  cylinder,  but  a  cone ;  let 
the  wrapping  taper  naturally  from  top  to  bottom.  Attention 
to  this  point  is  necessary  for  all  large  or  medium  sized  birds 
with  naturally  prominent  legs.  The  large  finely  feathered  legs 
of  a  hawk,  for  example,  ought  to  be  well  displayed  ;  with  these 
birds,  and  also  with  rails,  etc.,  moreover,  imitate  the  bulge  of 
the  thigh  with  a  special  wad  laid  inside  the  skin.  Large  birds 
commonly  require  also  a  special  wad  introduced  by  the  mouth, 
to  make  the  swell  of  the  throat ;  this  wad  should  be  rather 
fluffy  than  firm.  As  a  rule  do  not  fill  out  large  birds  to  their 
natural  dimensions ;  they  take  up  too  much  room.  Let  the 
head,  neck  and  legs  be  accurately  prepared,  but  leave  the  main 
cavity  one-third  if  not  one-half  empty ;  no  more  is  required 
than  will  fairly  smooth  out  creases  in  the  skin.  Reduce  bulk 
rather  by  flattening  out  than  by  general  compression.  Use 
tow  instead  of  cotton ;  and  if  at  all  short  of  tow,  economize 
with  paper,  hay,  etc.,  at  least  for  the  deeper  portions  of  the 
main  stuffing.  Large  birds  may  be  "set"  in  a  great  quantity 
of  tow ;  wrapped  in  paper,  much  like  any  other  parcel ;  or 
simply  left  to  dry  on  the  table,  the  wings  being  only  supported 
by  cushioning  or  other  suitable  means. 

§39.  SHAPE.  Some  special  configurations  have  been  noticed 
in  the  last  paragraph,  prematurely  perhaps,  but  leading  di- 
rectly up  to  further  considerations  respecting  shape  of  certain 
birds  as  a  modifying  element  in  the  process  of  preparation. 
As  for  skinning,  there  is  one  extremely  important  matter. 
Most  ducks,  many  woodpeckers,  flamingoes,  and  doubtless 
some  others,  with  which  I  am  not  familiar,  cannot  be  skinned 
in  the  usual  way,  because  the  head  is  too  large  for  the  calibre 
of  the  neck  and  cannot  be  drawn  through.  In  such  cases,  skin 
as  usual  to  the  base  of  the  skull,  cut  off  the  head  there  (in- 
side l!he  skin  of  course),  and  operate  upon  it,  after  turning  the 
skin  right  side  out,  as  follows:  —  Part  the  feathers  carefully 
in  a  straight  line  down  the  back  of  the  skull,  make  a  cut 
through  the  skin,  just  long  enough  to  permit  the  head  to  pass, 
draw  out  the  skull  through  this  opening,  and  dress  it  as  already 


74  HOW   TO   MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

directed.  Return  it,  draw  the  edges  of  the  cat  nicely  to- 
gether; and  sew  up  the  opening  with  a  great  many  fine  stitches. 
Simple  as  it  may  appear,  this  process  is  often  embarrassing, 
for  the  cut  has  an  unhappy  tendency  to  wander  about  the  neck, 
enlarging  itself  even  under  the  most  careful  manipulation  ; 
while  the  feathers  of  the  parts  are  usually  so  short,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  efface  all  traces  of  the  operation.  I  consider  it 
very  disagreeable  ;  but  for  ducks  I  know  of  no  alternative.  I 
have  however  found  out  a  way  to  avoid  it  with  woodpeckers, 
excepting  the  very  largest :  it  is  this  : — Before  skinning,  part 
the  eyelids,  and  plunge  the  scalpel  right  into  the  eyeballs  ; 
seize  the  cut  edge  of  the  ball  with  the  forceps,  and  pull  the 
eye  right  out.  It  may  be  dextrously  done  without  spilling  the 
eye  water  on  the  plumage  ;  but,  for  fear  of  this,  previously  put 
a  little  pile  of  plaster  on  the  spot.  Throw  arsenic  into  the 
socket,  and  then  fill  it  with  cotton  poked  in  between  the  lids. 
The  eyes  are  thus-  disposed  of.  Then,  in  skinning,  when  you 
come  to  the  head,  dissever  it  from  the  neck  and  work  the  skull 
as  far  out  as  you  can ;  it  may  be  sufficient^  exposed,  in  all 
cases,  for  you  to  gouge  out  the  base  of  the  skull  with  the  scis- 
sors, and  get  at  the  brain  to  remove  it.  Apply  an  extra  large 
dose  of  arsenic,  and  you  will  never  hear  from  what  jaw-muscle 
has  been  left  in.  In  all  these  cases,  as  already  remarked,  the 
head  is  preferably  set  lying  on  one  side,  with  the  bill  pointing 
obliquely  to  the  right  or  left.  Certain  birds  require  a  special 
mode  of  setting ;  these  are,  birds  with  very  long  legs  or  neck, 
or  both,  as  swans,  geese,  pelicans,  cormorants,  snakebirds, 
loons,  and  especially  cranes,  herons,  ibises  and  flamingoes. 
Long  legs  should  be  doubled  completely  on  themselves  by 
bending  at  the  heel-joint,  and  either  tucked  under  the  wings, 
or  laid  on  the  under  surface  ;  the  chief  point  is  to  see  that 
the  toes  lie  flat,  so  that  the  claws  do  not  stick  up,  to  catch 
in  things  or  get  broken  off.  A  long  neck  should  be  carefully 
folded ;  not  at  a  sharp  angle  with  a  crease  in  the  skin,  but 
with  a  short  curve,  and  brought  round  either  to  the  side  of 
the  bird  or  on  its  breast,  as  may  seem  most  convenient.  The 
object  is  to  make  a  "bale"  of  the  skin  as  nearly  as  may  be, 


THIN   SKINS,    ETC. — FAT.  75 

and  when  it  is  properly  effected  it  is  surprising  what  little  space 
a  crane,  for  instance,  occupies.  But  it  is  rarely,  if  ever,  admis- 
sible to  bend  a  tail  back  on  the  body  however  inconveniently 
long  it  may  be.  Special  dilations  of  skin,  like  the  pouch  of  a 
pelican,  or  the  air  sacs  of  a  prairie-hen,  may  be  moderately 
displayed. 

§40.  THIN  SKIN.  LOOSE  PLUMAGE.  It  is  astonishing  how 
much  resistance  is  offered  by  the  thin  skin  of  the  smallest  bird. 
Though  no  thicker  than  tissue  paper,  it  is  not  very  liable  to  tear 
if  deftly  handled  ;  yet  a  rent  once  started  often  enlarges  to  an 
embarrassing  extent  if  the  skin  be  stretched  in  the  least. 
Accidental  rents,  and  enlargements  of  shot-holes,  should  be 
neatly  sewn  up,  if  occurring  in  an  exposed  place ;  but  in  most 
cases  the  plumage  may  be  set  to  hide  the  openings.  The  tro- 
gons  are  -said  to  have  remarkably  thin  and  delicate  skin ;  I 
have  never  handled  one  in  the  flesh.  Among  our  birds,  the 
cardinal  grosbeak  has,  I  think,  about  the  tenderest  skin.  The 
obvious  indication  in  all  such  cases  is  simply  a  little  extra 
delicacy  of  manipulation.  In  skinning  most  birds,  you  should 
not  loose  more  than  a  feather  or  two,  excepting  those  loos- 
ened by  the  shot.  Pigeons  are  peculiar,  among  our  birds, 
for  the  very  loose  insertion  of  their  plumage ;  you  will  have 
to  be  particularly  careful  with  them  and  in  spite  of  all  your 
precautions  a  good  many  feathers  will  probably  drop.  Strip- 
ping down  the  secondary  quills  from  the  forearm,  in  the  manner 
already  indicated,  will  so  almost  invariably  set  these  feathers 
free  from  the  skin  that  I  recommend  you  not  to  attempt  it, 
but  to  dress  the  wings  as  prescribed  for  large  birds. 

§41.  FATNESS.  Fat  is  a  substance  abhorred  of  all  dissec- 
tors ;  always  in  the  way,  embarrassing  operations  and  obscur- 
ing observations,  whfle  it  is  seldom  worth  examination  after 
its  structure  has  once  been  ascertained.  It  is  particularly 
obnoxious  to  the  taxidermist,  since  it  is  liable  to  soil  the  plu- 
mage during  skinning,  and  also  to  soak  into  the  feathers  after- 
wards ;  and  greasy  birdskins  are  never  pleasing  objects.  A 


76  HOW   TO   MAKE   A   BIRDSKIN. 

few  birds  never  seem  to  have  any  fat ;  some,  like  petrels,  are 
always  oily  ;  at  times,  especially  in  the  indolent  autumn  season, 
when  birds  have  little  to  do  but  feed,  the  great  majority  ac- 
quire an  embonpoint  doubtless  to  their  own  satisfaction,  but  to 
the  taxidermist's  discomfort.  In  all  such  cases,  gypsum  should 
be  lavishly  employed.  Strew  plaster  plentifully  from  the  first 
cut,  all  through  the  operation  ;  dip  your  fingers  in  it  frequently, 
as  well  as  your  instruments.  The  invaluable  absorbent  will 
deal  with  most  of  the  "  running"  fat.  When  the  skin  is  com- 
pletely reversed  remove  as  much  of  the  solid  fat  as  possible  ; 
it  is  generally  found  occupying  the  areolar  tissue  of  particular 
definite  tracts,  and  most  of  it  may  usually  be  peeled  or  flaked 
off  in  considerable  masses.  Since  the  soft  and  oozy  state  of 
most  birds'  fat  at  ordinary  temperatures  may  be  much  im- 
proved by  cold,  it  will  repay  you  to  leave  your  birds  on  ice  for 
a  while  before  skinning,  if  you  have  the  means  and  time  to 
do  so ;  the  fat  will  become  quite  firm.  There  is  a  device  for 
preventing  or  at  any  rate  lessening  the  soiling  of  the  plumage 
so  apt  to  occur  along  the  line  of  your  incision  ;  it  is  invaluable 
in  all  cases  of  white  plumage.  Take  a  strip  of  cloth  of  greater 
width  than  the  length  of  the  feathers,  long  enough  to  go  up 
one  side  of  the  cut  and  down  the  other.  Sew  this  closely  to 
the  skin  all  around  the  cut,  and  it  will  form  an  apron  to  guard 
the  plumage.  You  will  too  frequently  find  that  a  bird,  pre- 
pared without  soiling  and  laid  away  apparently  safe,  after- 
wards grows  greasy ;  if  the  plumage  is  white,  it  soon  becomes 
worse  than  ever  by  showing  dust  that  the  grease  catches. 
Perhaps  the  majority  of  such  birds  in  our  museums  show  the 
dirty  streak  along  the  belly.  The  reason  is,  that  the  grease 
has  oozed  out  along  the  cut  and  wherever  else  the  skin  has 
been  broken,  and  infiltrated  the  plumage,  being  drawn  up  ap- 
parently by  capillary  attraction,  just  as  a  lampwick  "sucks 
up  "  oil.  Sometimes,  witftout  obviously-  soiling  the  plumage, 
the  grease  will  run  along  the  thread  that  ties  the  label,  and 
make  a  uniformly  transparent  piece  of  "oil-paper."  I  have 
no  remedy  to  offer  for  this  gradual  infiltration  of  the  plumage. 
It  will  not  wash  out,  even  with  soap  and  water.  Possibly 


BLOODSTAINS,    ETC.  77 

careful  and  persistent  treatment  with  an  ether  might  be  effec- 
tive, but  I  am  not  prepared  to  say  it  would  be.  Removal  of 
all  fat  that  can  be  got  off  during  skinning  with  a  liberal  use 
of  plaster  will  in  a  measure  prevent  a  difficulty  that  remains 
incurable. 

§42.  BLOODSTAINS,  ETC.  In  the  nature  of  the  case,  this  com- 
plication is  of  continual  occurrence  ;  fortunately  it  is  easier 
dealt  with  than  greasiness.  Much  may  be  done,  in  the  field, 
to  prevent  bloodying  of  the  plumage,  as  already  said.  A  little 
blood  does  not  show  much  on  a  dark  plumage ;  but  it  is  of 
course  conspicuous  on  light  or  white  feathers.  Dried  blood 
may  often  be  scraped  off,  in  imitation  of  the  natural  process 
by  which  a  bird  cleanses  its  plumage  with  the  bill ;  or  be  pul- 
verized by  gently  twiddling  the  feathers  between  the  fingers, 
and  then  blown  off.  But  feathers  may  by  due  care  be  washed 
almost  as  readily  as  clothing ;  and  we  must  ordinarity  resort 
to  this  to  remove  all  traces  of  blood,  especially  from  white 
surfaces.  If  properly  dried  they  do  not  show  the  operation. 
With  a  soft  rag  or  pledget  of  cotton  dipped  in  warm  water 
bathe  the  place  assiduously,  pressing  down  pretty  hard,  only 
taking  care  to  stroke  the  feathers  the  right  way,  so  as  not  to 
crumple  them,  until  the  red  color  disappears ;  then  you  have 
simply  a  wet  place  to  deal  with.  Press  gypsum  on  the  spot ; 
it  will  cake  ;  flake  it  off  and  apply  more,  till  it  will  no  longer 
stick.  Then  raise  the  feathers  on  a  knife  blade  and  sprinkle 
gypsum  in  among  them ;  pat  it  down  and  shake  it  up, 
wrestling  with  the  spot  till  the  moisture  is  entirely  absorbed. 
Two  other  fluids  of  the  body  will  give  you  occasional  annoy- 
ance—  the  juices  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  the  eye-water. 
Escape  of  the  former  by  mouth,  nostrils  or  vent  is  preventable 
by  plugging  these  orifices,  and  its  occurrence  is  inexcusable. 
But  shot  often  lacerates  the  gullet,  crop  and  bowels,  and  though 
nothing  may  flow  at  the  time,  subsequent  jolting  or  pressure 
in  the  game  bag  causes  the  escape  of  fluids  :  a  seemingly  safe 
specimen  may  be  unwrapped  to  show  the  whole  belly  plumage 
a  sodden  brown  mass.  Such  accidents  should  be  treated  pre- 


78  HOW   TO   MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

cisely  like  bloodstains ;  but  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  these 
stains  are  not  seldom  indelible,  traces  usually  persisting  in 
white  plumage  at  least  in  spite  of  our  best  endeavors.  Eye- 
water, insignificant  as  it  may  appear,  is  often  a  great  annoy- 
ance, this  liquor  is  slightly  glairy,  or  rather  glassy,  and  puts  a 
sort  of  sizing  on  the  plumage,  difficult  to  efface — the  more  so 
since  the  soiling  necessarily  occurs  in  a  conspicuous  place, 
where  the  plumage  is  too  scanty  and  delicate  to  bear  much 
handling.  It  frequently  happens  that  a  lacerated  eyeball,  by 
the  elasticity  of  the  coats,  or  adhesion  of  the  lids,  retains  its 
fluid  till  this  is  pressed  out  in  manipulating  the  parts ;  and 
recollecting  how  the  head  lies  buried  in  plumage  at  that  stage 
of  the  process,  it  will  be  seen  that  not  only  the  head,  but  much 
of  the  neck  and  even  the  breast  may  become  wetted.  If  the 
parts  are  extensively  soaked,  the  specimen  is  almost  irrepa- 
rably damaged,  if  not  ruined.  Plaster  will  absorb  the  moist- 
ure, but  much  of  the  sizing  may  be  retained  on  the  plumage  ; 
therefore,  though  the  place  seems  simply  wet,  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly washed  with  water  before  the  gypsum  is  applied.  I 
always  endeavor  to  prevent  the  accident ;  if  I  notice  a  lacer- 
ated eyeball,  I  extract  it  before  skinning,  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed for  woodpeckers.  Miscellaneous  stains,  from  the  juices 
of  plants,  etc.,  may  be  received ;  all  such  are  treated  on  gen- 
eral principles.  Blood  on  the  beak  and  feet  of  rapacious  birds, 
mud  on  the  bill  and  legs  of  waders,  etc.,  etc.,  may  be  washed 
off  without  the  slightest  difficulty.  A.  land  bird  that  has  fallen 
in  the  water  should  be  recovered  as  soon  as  possible,  picked 
up  by  the  bill,  and  shaken ;  most  of  the  water  will  run  off,  un- 
less the  plumage  is  completely  soaked.  It  should  be  allowed 
to  dry  just  as  it  is,  without  touching  the  plumage,  before  being 
wrapped  and  bagged.  If  a  bird  fall  in  soft  mud,  the  dirt 
should  be  scraped  or  snapped  off  as  far  as  this  can  be  done 
without  plastering  the  feathers  down,  and  the  rest  allowed  to 
dry  ;  it  may  afterward  be  rubbed  fine  and  dusted  off,  when  no 
harm  will  ensue,  except  to  white  feathers  which  may  require 
washing. 


MUTILATION.  79 

§43.  MUTILATION.  You  will  often  be  troubled,  early  in  your 
practice,  with  broken  legs  and  wings,  and  various  lacerations ; 
but  the  injury  must  be  very  severe  (such  as  the  carrying  away 
of  a  limb,  or  blowing  off  the  wrhole  top  of  a  head)  that  can- 
not be  in  great  measure  remedied  by  care  and  skill.  Sup- 
pose a  little  bird,  shot  through  the  neck  or  small  of  the  back, 
comes  apart  while  being  skinned  ;  you  have  only  to  remove  the 
hinder  portion,  be  that  much  or  little,  and  go  on  with  the  rest 
as  if  it  were  the  whole.  If  the  leg  bone  of  a  small  bird  be 
broken  near  the  heel,  let  it  come  away  altogether  —  it  will 
make  little  if  any  difference.  In  case  of  the  same  accident  to 
a  large  bird  that  ought  to  have  the  legs  wrapped,  whittle  out 
a  peg  and  stick  it  in  the  hollow  stump  of  the  bone ;  if  there 
is  no  stump  left  file  a  piece  of  stout  wire  to  a  point  and  stick 
it  into  the  heel  joint.  If  the  forearm  bone  that  you  usually 
leave  in  a  small  bird  is  broken,  remove  it  and  leave  the  other 
in ;  if  both  are  broken,  do  not  clean  the  wings  so  thoroughly 
that  they  become  detached ;  an  extra  pinch  of  arsenic  will 
condone  the  omission.  In  a  large  bird,  if  both  bones  of  the 
forearm  are  broken,  splint  them  with  a  bit  of  wood  laid  in 
between  so  that  one  end  hitches  at  the  elbow,  the  other  at  the 
wrist.  A  humerus  may  be  replaced  like  a  leg  bone,  but  this  is 
rarely  required.  If  the  skull  be  smashed,  save  the  pieces,  and 
leave  them  if  you  can ;  if  not,  imitate  the  arch  of  the  head 
with  a  firm  cotton-ball.  A  broken  tarsus  is  readily  splinted 
with  a  pin  thrust  up  through  the  sole  of  the  foot :  if  too  large 
for  this,  use  a  pointed  piece  of  wire.  There  is  no  mending  a 
bill  when  part  of  it  is  shot  away,  for  I  think  the  replacing  of 
part  by  putty,  stucco,  etc.,  inadmissible  ;  but  if  it  be  only  frac- 
tured, the  pieces  may  usually  be  retained  in  place  by  winding 
with  thread,  or  with  a  touch  of  glue  or  mucilage.  It  is  singu- 
lar,'by  the  way,  what  unsightliness  results  from  a  very  trifling 
injury  to  the  bill — much,  I  suppose,  as  a  boil  on  a  person's 
nose  is  peculiarly  deplorable.  I  have  already  hinted  how  art- 
fully various  weak  places  in  a  skin,  due  to  mutilation  or  loss 
of  plumage,  may  be  hidden. 


80  HOW   TO   MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

§44.  DECOMPOSITION.  It  might  seem  unnecessary  to  speak 
of  what  may  be  smelled  out  so  readily  as  animal  putrescence, 
but  there  are  some  useful  points  to  be  learned  in  this  connec- 
tion, besides  the  important  sanitary  precautions  that  are  to  be 
deduced.  Immediately  after  death  the  various  fluids  of  the 
body  begin  to  "settle"  (so  to  speak)  and  shortly  after,  the 
muscular  system  as  a  rule  becomes  fixed  in  what  is  technically 
called  rigor  mortis.  This  stiffening  usually  occurs  as  the  ani- 
mal heat  dies  away  ;  but  its  onset,  and  especially  its  duration, 
is  very  variable,  according  to  circumstances,  such  as  cause  of 
death ;  although  in  most  cases  of  sudden  violent  death  of  an 
animal  in  previous  good  health,  it  seems  to  depend  chiefly  upon 
temperature,  being  transient  and  imperfect,  or  altogether  want- 
ing in  hot  weather.  As  it  passes  off,  the  whole  system  re- 
laxes, and  the  body  soon  becomes  as  "limp"  as  at  the  moment 
of  death.  This  is  the  period  immediately  preceding  decompo- 
sition—  in  fact,  it  may  be  considered  as  the  stage  of  incipient 
putridity  ;  it  is  very  brief  in  warm  weather ;  and  it  should  be 
seized  as  the  last  opportunity  of  preparing  a  bird  without 
inconvenience  and  even  danger.  If  not  skinned  at  once, 
putrescence  becomes  established ;  it  is  indicated  by  the  efflu- 
vium (at  the  outset  "sour,"  but  rapidly  acquiring  a  variety  of 
disgusting  odors)  ;  by  the  distension  of  the  abdomen  with 
gaseous  products  of  decomposition ;  by  a  loosening  of  the 
cuticle,  and  consequently  of  the  feathers ;  and  by  other  signs. 
If  you  part  the  feathers  of  a  bad-smelling  bird's  belly  to 
find  the  skin  swollen  and  livid  or  greenish,  while  the  feathers 
come  off  at  a  touch,  the  bird  is  too  far  gone  to  be  recovered 
without  trouble  and  risk  that  no  ordina^  specimen  warrants. 
It  is  a  singular  fact  that  this  early  putrescence  is  more 
poisonous  than  utter  rottenness ;  as  physicians  are  aware,  a 
post-mortem  examination  at  this  stage,  or  even  before  it,  in- 
volves more  risk  than  their  ordinary  dissecting-room  expe- 
rience. It  seems  that  both  natural  and  pathological  poisons 
lose  their  early  virulence  by  resolution  into  other  products 
of  decay.  The  obvious  deduction  from  ail  this  is  to  skin 
your  birds  soon  enough.  Some  say  they  are  best  skinned  per- 


DECOMPOSITION.  81 

fectly  fresh,  but  I  sec  no  reason  for  this  ;  when  I  have  time  to 
choose,  I  take  the  period  of  rigidity  as  being  preferable  on  the 
whole ;  for  the  fluids  have  then  "  settled,"  and  the  limbs  are 
readily  relaxed  by  manipulation.  If  you  have  a  large  bag  to 
dispose  of,  and  are  pressed  for  time,  set  them  in  the  coolest 
place  you  can  find,  preferably  on  ice ;  a  slight  lowering  of 
temperature  may  make  a  decided  difference.  Disembowelling, 
which  may  be  accomplished  in  a  moment,  will  materially  retard 
decomposition.  Injections  of  creosote  or  dilute  carbolic  acid 
will  arrest  decay  for  a  time,  for  an  indefinitely  long  period  if 
a  large  quantity  of  these  antiseptics  be  employed.  When  it 
becomes  desirable  (it  can  never  be  necessary)  to  skin  a  putres- 
cent  bird,  great  care  must  be  exercised  not  only  to  accomplish 
the  operation,  but  to  avoid  danger.  I  must  not,  however,  un- 
consciously lead  you  to  exaggerate  the  risk,  and  will  add  that 
I  think  it  often  overrated.  I  have  probably  skinned  birds  as 
"  gamey  "  as  any  one  has,  and  repeatedly,  without  being  con- 
scious of  any  ill  effects.  I  am  sure  that  no  poison,  ordinarily 
generated  by  decomposition  of  a  body  healthy  at  death,  can 
compare  in  virulence  with  that  commonly  resulting  after  death- 
by  many  diseases.  I  also  believe  that  the  gaseous  products, 
however  offensive  to  the  smell,  are  innocuous  as  a  rule.  The 
danger  practically  narrows  down  to  the  absorption  of  fluids 
through  an  abraded  surface  ;  the  poison  is  rarely  taken  in  by 
natural  pores  of  healthy  skin,  if  it  remain  in  contact  but  a 
short  time.  Cuts  and  scratches  may  be  closed  with  a  film  of 
collodion,  or  covered  with  isinglass  or  court  plaster,  or  pro- 
tected by  rubber  cots  on  the  fingers.  The  hands  should,  of 
course,  be  washed  with  particular  care  immediately  after  the 
operation,  and  the  nails  scrupulously  dressed.  Having  never 
been  poisoned  (to  my  knowledge) ,  I  cannot  give  the  symptoms 
from  personal  experience  ;  but  I  will  quote  from  Mr.  Maynara. 
"In  a  few  days  numerous  pimples,  which  are  exceedingly 
painful,  appear  upon  the  skin  of  the  face  and  other  parts  of 
the  person  and,  upon  those  parts  where  there  is  chafing  or  rub- 
bing, become  large  and  deep  sores.  There  is  a  general  languor 
and,  if  badly  poisoned,  complete  prostration  results  ;  the  slight- 


82  HOW   TO   MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

est  scratch  becomes  a  festering  sore.  Once  poisoned  in  this 
manner  (and  I  speak  from  experience) ,  one  is  never  afterward 
able  to  skin  any  animal  that  has  become  in  the  least  putrid, 
without  experiencing  some  of  the  symptoms  above  described. 
Even  birds  that  you  handled  before  with  impunity,  you  cannot 
now  skin  without  great  care.  The  best  remedy  in  this  case  is, 
as  the  Hibernian  would  say,  not  to  get  poisoned,  .  .  bathe  the 
parts  frequently  in  cold  water  ;  and,  if  chafed,  sprinkle  the  parts 
after  bathing,  with  wheat  flour.  These  remedies,  if  persisted  in, 
will  effect  a  cure,  if  not  too  bad  ;  then,  medical  advice  should 
be  procured  without  delay."* 

§45.  How  TO  MOUNT  BIRDS.  As  some  may  not  improbably 
procure  this  volume  with  a  reasonable  expectation  of  being 
taught  to  mount  birds,  I  append  the  required  instructions, 
although  the  work  only  professes  to  treat  of  the  preparation 
of  .skins  for  the  cabinet.  As  a  rule,  the  purposes  of  science 
are  best  subserved  by  not  mounting  specimens ;  for  display, 
tne  only  end  attained,  is  not  required.  I  would  strongly  advise 
you  not  to  mount  your  rarer  or  otherwise  particularly  valuable 
specimens ;  select  for  this  purpose  nice,  pretty  birds  of  no 
special  scientific  value.  The  principal  objections  to  mounted 
birds  are,  that  they  take  up  altogether  too  much  room,  require 
special  arrangements  for  keeping  and  transportation,  and  can- 
not be  handled  for  study  with  impunity.  Some  might  suppose 
that  a  mounted  bird  would  give  a  better  idea  of  its  figure  and 
general  aspect  than  a  skin ;  but  this  is  only  true  to  a  limited 
extent.  Faultless  mounting  is  an  art  really  difficult,  acquired 
by  few ;  the  average  work  done  in  this  line  shows  something 
of  caricature,  ludicrous  or  repulsive,  as  the  case  may  be.  To 
copy  nature  faithfully  by  taxidermy  requires  not  only  long 
and  close  study,  but  an  artistic  sense  ;  and  this  last  is  a  rare 


*  Avoid  all  mechanical  irritation  of  the  inflamed  parts ;  touch  the  parts  that 
have  ulcerated  with  a  stick  of  lunar  caustic;  take  a  dose  of  salts;  use  syrup  of 
the  iodide  of  iron,  or  tincture  of  the  chloride  of  iron,  say  thirty  drop^s  of  either,  in 
a  wineglass  of  water,  thrice  daily ;  rest  at  first,  exercise  gradually  as  you  can  bear 
it;  and  skin  no  birds  till  you  have  completely  recovered. 


MOUNTING   BIRDS.  83 

gift.  Unless  you  have  at  least  the  germs  of  the  faculty  in 
your  composition  your  taxidermal  success  will  be  incommensu- 
rate with  the  time  and  trouble  you  bestow.  My  own  taxider- 
mal art  is  of  a  low  order,  decidedly  not  above  average ; 
although  I  have  mounted  a  great  many  birds  that  would  look 
well  enough  by  the  side  of  ordinary  museum  work,  few  of  them 
have  entirely  answered  my  ideas.  A  live  bird  is  to  me  such  a 
beautiful  object  that  the  slightest  taxidermal  flaw  in  the  effort 
to  represent  it  is  painfully  offensive ;  perhaps  this  makes  me 
place  the  standard  of  excellence  too  high  for  practical  pur- 
poses. I  like  a  good  honest  bjrdskin  that  does  not  pretend  to 
be  anything  else  ;  it  is  far  preferable  to  the  ordinary  taxider- 
mal abortions  of  the  show-cases.  But  if,  after  the  warnings 
that  I  mean  to  convey  in  this  paragraph,  you  still  wish  to  try 
your  hand  in  the  higher  department  of  taxidermy,  I  will  ex- 
plain the  whole  process  as  far  as  manipulation  goes ;  the  art 
you  must  discover  in  yourself. 

The  operation  of  skinning  is  precisely  the  same  as  that 
already  given  in  detail ;  then,  instead  of  stuffing  the  skin  as 
directed  above,  to  lie  on  its  back  in  a  drawer,  you  have  to  stuff 
it  so  that  it  will  stand  up  on  its  feet  and  look  as  much  like  a 
live  bird  as  possible.  To  this  end  a  few  additional  implements 
and  materials  are  required.  These  are  :  —  a,  annealed  wire 
of  various  numbers ;  it  may  be  iron  or  brass,  but  must  be 
perfectly  annealed,  so  as  to  retain  no  elasticity  or  "  spring ;" 
&,'  several  files  of  different  sizes ;  c,  some  slender,  straight 
brad  awls ;  c?,  cutting  pliers ;  e,  setting  needles,  merely  sew- 
ing or  darning  needles  stuck  in  a  light  wooden  handle,  for 
dressing  individual  feathers ;  /,  plenty  of  pins  *  and  sewing 
thread ;  g,  an  assortment  of  glass  eyes.  (The  fixtures  and 
decorations  are  noticed,  beyond,  as  occasion  for  their  use 
arises.) 

There  are  two  principal  methods  of  mounting,  which  may 
be  respectively  styled  soft  stuffing,  and  hard  stuffing.  In  the 
former,  a  wire  framework,  consisting  of  a  single  anterior 

*  The  long,  slender  insect  pins  used  by  entomologists  are  the  best. 


84  HOW   TO   MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

piece  passing  in  the  middle  line  of  the  body  up  through  the 
neck  and  out  at  the  top  of  the  head,  is  immovably  joined 
behind  with  two  pieces,  one  passing  through  each  leg  :  around 
this  naked  forked  frame  soft  stuffing  is  introduced,  bit  by  bit, 
till  the  proper  contour  of  the  skin  is  secured.  I  have  seen 
very  pretty  work  of  this  kind,  particularly  on  small  birds  ;  but 
I  consider  it  much  more  difficult  to  secure  satisfactory  results 
in  this  way  than  by  hard  stuffing,  and  I  shall  therefore  con- 
fine attention  to  the  latter.  This  method  is  applicable  to  all 
birds,  is  readily  practised,  facilitates  setting  of  the  wings, 
arranging  of  the  plumage,  and  giving  of  any  desired  attitude. 
In  hard  stuffing,  you  make  .a  firm  ball  of  tow  rolled  upon  a 
wire  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  bird's  body  and  neck  to- 
gether ;  you  introduce  this  whole,  afterwards  running  in  the 
leg  wires  and  clinching  them  immovably  in  the  mass  of  tow. 

Having  your  empty  skin  in  good  shape,  as  already  described, 
cut  three  pieces  of  wire  of  the  right  *  size  ;  one  piece  some- 
what longer  than  the  whole  bird,  the  other  pieces  two  or  three 
times  as  long  as  the  whole  leg  of  the  bird.  File  one  end  of 
each  piece  to  a  fine  sharp  point,  try  to  secure  a  three-edged 
cutting  point  like  that  of  surgical  needles,  rather  than  the 
smooth,  punching  point  of  a  sewing  needle,  the  former  perfo- 
rates more  readily.  Have  these  wires  perfectly  straight.-}- 
Bend  a  small  portion  of  the  unfiled  end  of  the  longer  wire  ir- 
regularly upon  itself,  as  a  convenient  nucleus  for  the  ball  of 
tow.j  Take  fine  clean  tow,  in  loose  dossils,  and  wrap  it  round 
and  round  the  wire  nucleus,  till  you  make  a  firm  ball,  of  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  bird's  body  and  neck.  Study  the  con- 
tour of  the  skinned  body  :  notice  the  swelling  breast  muscles, 
the  arch  of  the  lower  back,  the  hollow  between  the  furcula  into 

*The  right  size  is  the  smallest  that  will  support  the  whole  weight  of  the  stuff- 
ing and  skin  without  bending,  when  a  piece  is  introduced  into  each  leg.  If  using 
too  thick  wire  you  may  have  trouble  in  thrusting  it  through  the  legs,  or  may  burst 
the  tarsal  envelope. 

tlf  accidentally  kinky,  the  finer  sizes  of  wire  may  be  readily  straightened  by 
drawing  strongly  upon  them  so  as  to  stretch  them  a  little.  Heavier  wire  must  be 
hammered  out  straight. 

t  Cotton  will  not  do  at  all ;  it  is  too  soft  and  elastic,  and  moreover  will  not  allow 
of  the  leg  wires  being  thrust  into  it  and  there  clinched. 


STUFFING   AND   WIRING.  85 

which  the  neck,  when  naturally  curved,  sinks.  Everything 
depends  upon  correct  shaping  of  the  artificial  body ;  if  it  be 
misshapen,  no  art  can  properly  adjust  the  skin  over  it.  Firm- 
ness of  the  tow  ball  and  accurate  contour  may  both  be  secured 
by  wrapping  the  mass  with  sewing  thread,  loosening  here, 
tightening  there,  till  the  shape  is  satisfactory.  Be  particular 
to  secure  a  smooth  superficies  ;  the  skin  in  drying  will  shrink 
close  to  the  stuffing,  disclosing  •  its  irregularities,  if  there  be 
any,  by  the  maladjustment  of  the  plumage  that  will  ensue. 
Observe  especially  that  the  neck,  though  the  direct  continua- 
tion of  the  backbone,  dips  at  its  lower  end  into  the  hollow 
of  the  merrythought,  and  so  virtually  begins  there  instead  of 
directly  between  the  shoulders.  The  three  mistakes  most 
likely  to  be  made  by  a  beginner  are,  getting  the  body 
altogether  too  large,  not  firm  enough,  and  irregular.  When 
properly  made  it  will  closely  resemble  the  bird's  body  and 
neck,  with  an  inch  or  several  inches  of  sharp-pointed  wire  pro- 
truding from  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  neck  of  tow.  You 
have  now  to  introduce  the  whole  affair  into  the  skin.  With  the 
birdskin  on  its  back,  the  tail  pointing  to  your  right  elbow,  and 
the  abdominal  opening  as  wide  as  possible,  hold  the  body 
in  position  relative  to  the  skin ;  enter  the  wire,  pass  it  up 
through  the  neck,  bring  the  sharp  point  exactly  against  the 
middle  of  the  skull,  pierce  skull  and  skin,  causing  the  wire  to 
protrude  some  distance  from  the  middle  of  the  crown.  Then 
by  gentle  means  insinuate  the  body,  partly  pushing  it  in, 
partly  drawing  the  skin  over  it,  till  it  rests  in  its  proper 
position.  This  is  just  like  drawing  on  a  tight  kid  glove,  and 
no  more  difficult.  See  that  the  body  is  completely  encased ; 
you  must  be  able  to  close  the  abdominal  aperture  entirely. 
You  have  next  to  wire  the  legs.  Enter  the  sharp  point  of 
one  of  the  leg  wires  already  prepared,  exactly  at  the  centre 
of  the  sole  of  the  foot,  thrusting  it  up  inside  the  tarsal  en- 
velope the  whole  length  of  the  "  shank,"  thence  across  the 
heel-joint  *  and  up  along  the  next  bone  of  the  leg,  still  inside 

*  There  is  occasionally  difficulty  in  getting  the  wire  across  this  joint,  from  the 
point  sticking  into  the  enlarged  end  of  the  shin-bone.    In  such  case,  take  stout 


86  HOW   TO   MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

the  skin.  The  point  of  the  wire  will  then  be  seen  within  the 
skin  and  may.be  seized  and  drawn  a  little  farther  through, 
and  you  will  have  passed  a  wire  entirely  out  of  sight  all  the 
way  along  the  leg.  The  end  of  the  wire  is  next  to  be  fixed 
immovably  in  the  tow  ball.  Thrust  it  in  at  the.  point  where 
the  knee,  in  life,  rests  against  the  side  of  the  body.*  Bring 
the  point  to  view,  bend  it  over  and  reinsert  it  till  it  sticks 
fast.  There  are  no  special  directions  to  be  given  here  ;  fasten 
the  wire  in  any  way  that  effectually  prevents  "  wabbling." 
You  may  find  it  convenient  to  wire  both  legs  before  fasten- 
ing either,  and  then  clinch  them  by  twisting  the  two  ends 
together.  But  remember  that  the  leg  wires  may  be  fixed  re- 
specting each  other,  yet  permit  a  see-saw  motion  of  the  body 
upon  them.  This  must  not  be,  the  body  and  legs  must  be 
fixed  upon  a  jointless  frame.  Having  secured  the  legs,  close 
the  abdominal  opening  nicely,  either  by  sewing  or  pinning,  you 
may  stick  pins  in  anywhere,  as  freely  as  in  a  pin  cushion ;  the 
feathers  hide  their  heads.  Stick  a  pin  through  the  pope's 
nose,  to  fix  the  tail  in  place. 

All  this  while  the  bird  has  been  lying  on  its  back,  the  neck 
stretched  straight  in  continuation  of  the  body,  wired  stiffly, 
the  legs  straddling  wide  apart,  straight  and  stiff,  the  wings 
lying  loosely,  half-spread.  Now  bring  the  legs  together,  paral- 
lel with  each  other,  and  make  the  sharp  bend  at  the  heel  joint 
that  will  bring  the  feet  naturally  under  the  belly  (over  it  as 
the  bird  lies  on  its  back) .  Pick  up  the  bird  by  the  wires  that 
project  from  the  soles  and  set  it  on  its  stand,  by  running  the 
wires  through  holes  bored  the  proper  distance  apart,  and  then 
securing  the  ends  by  twisting.  The  temporary  stand  that  you 
use  for  this  purpose  should  have  a  heavy  or  otherwise  firm  sup- 
port, so  as  not  easily  to  overturn  during  the  subsequent  manip- 
ulations. At  this  stage  the  bird  is  a  sorry  looking  object ;  but 

pliers  and  pinch  the  joint  till  the  bone  is  smashed  to  fragments.  The  wire  will 
then  pass  and  the  comminution  will  not  show.  If  there  is  any  trouble  in  passing 
the  wire  through  the  tarsus,  bore  a  hole  for  it  with  a  brad  awl. 

*This  point  is  further  forward  and  more  belly-ward  than  you  might  suppose. 
Observe  the  skinned  body  again,  and  see  whei'e  the  lower  end  of  the  thigh  lies.  If 
you  insert  the  wire  too  far  back,  you  cannot  by  any  possibility  balance  the  bird 
naturally  on  its  perch;  it  will  look  in  imminent  danger  of  toppling  over. 


SETTING   THE    BIRD.  87 

if  you  have  staffed  correctly  and  wired  securely,  it  will  soon 
improve.  Begin  by  making  it  stand  properly.  The  common 
fault  here  is  placing  the  tarsi  too  nearly  perpendicular.  Perch- 
ing birds,  constituting  the  majority,  habitually  stand  with  the 
tarsi  more  nearly  horizontal  than  perpendicular,  and  generally 
keep  the  tarsi  parallel  with  each  other.  Wading  and  most 
walking  birds  stand  with  the  legs  more  nearly  upright  and 
straight.  Many  swimming  birds  straddle  a  little ;  others 
rarely  if  ever.  See  that  the  toes  clasp  the  perch  naturally,  or 
are  properly  spread  on  the  flat  surface.  Cause  the  flank  feath- 
ers to  be  correctly  adjusted  over  the  tibiae  (and  here  I  will 
remark  that  with  most  birds  little,  if  any,  of  the  tibiae  shows 
in  life)  the  heel  joint  barely,  if  at  all,  projecting  from  the  gen- 
eral plumage.  It  is  a  common  fault  of  stuffing  not  to  draw 
the  legs  closely  enough  to  the  body.  Above  all,  look  out  for 
the  centre  of  gravity  ;  though  you  have  really  fastened  the  bird  to 
its  perch,  you  must  not  let  it  look  as  if  it  would  fall  off  if  the 
wires  slipped  ;  it  must  appear  to  rest  there  of  its  own  accord. 
Next,  give  the  head  and  neck  a  preliminary  setting,  according 
to  the  attitude  you  have  determined  upon.  This  will  bring  the 
plumage  about  the  shoulders  in  proper  position  for  the  setting 
of  the  wings,  to  which  you  may  at  once  attend.  If  the  body 
be  correctly  fashioned  and  the  skin  of  the  shoulders  only  ad- 
justed over  it,  the  wings  will  fold  into  place  without  the  slight- 
est difficulty.  All  that  I  have  said  before  about  setting  the 
wings  in  a  skin  applies  here  as  well ;  but  in  this  case  they  will 
not  stay  in  place  since  they  fall  by  their  own  weight.  They 
must  be  pinned  up.  Holding  the  wing  in  place  thrust  a  pin 
steadily  through,  near  the  wrist  joint,  into  the  tow  body. 
Sometimes  another  pin  is  required  to  support  the  weight  of  the 
primaries ;  it  may  be  stuck  into  the  flank  of  the  bird,  the 
outer  quill  feather  resting  directly  upon  it.  With  large  birds 
a  sharp  pointed  wire  must  replace  the  pin.  When  properly  set 
the  wing  tips  will  fall  together  or  symmetrically  opposite  each 
other,  the  quills  and  coverts  will  be  smoothly  imbricated,  the 
scapular  series  of  feathers  will  lie  close,  and  no  bare  space 
will  show  in  front  of  the  shoulder.  Much  depends  upon  the 


88  HOW    TO   MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

final  adjustment  of  the  head.  The  commonest  mistake  is  get- 
ting it  too  far  away  from  the  body.  In  the  ordinary  attitudes 
of  most  birds,  little  neck  shows,  the  head  appearing  nestled 
upon  the  shoulders.  If  the  neck  appears  too  long,  it  is  not 
to  be  contracted  by  pushing  the  head  directly  down  upon  it, 
but  by  making  an  S  curve  of  the  neck.  No  precise  direc- 
tions can  be  given  for  the  set  of  the  head  but  you  may  be 
assured  it  is  a  delicate,  difficult  matter ;  the  slightest  turn  of 
the  bill  one  way  or  another  may  alter  the  whole  expression  of 
the  bird.  You  will  of  course  have  determined  beforehand 
upon  your  attitude  —  upon  what  you  wish  the  bird  to  appear 
to  be  doing ;  then,  let  your  meaning  be  pointed  by  the  bird's 
bill. 

On  the  general  subject  of  striking  an  attitude,  and  giving 
expression  to  a  stuffed  bird,  little  can  be  said  to  good  purpose. 
If  you  are  to  become  proficient  in  this  art,  it  will  come  from 
your  own  study  of  birds  in  the  field,  your  own  good  taste  and 
appreciation  of  bird  life.  The  manual  processes  are  easily 
described  and  practised  —  it  is  easy  to  grind  paint,  I  suppose, 
but  not  so  to  be  an  artist.  I  shall  therefore  only  follow  the 
above  account  of  the  general  processes  with  some  special 
practical  points.  After  "attitudinizing"  to  your  satisfaction,  or 
to  the  best  of  your  ability,  the  plumage  is  to  be  carefully 
"  dressed."  Feathers  awry  may  be  set  in  place  with  a  light 
spring  forceps,  or  needles  fixed  in  a  handle  —  one  by  one  if 
necessary.  When  no  individual  feather  seems  out  of  place,  it 
often  occurs  that  the  general  plumage  has  a  loose,  slovenly 
aspect.  This  is  readily  corrected  by  wrapping  with  fine  thread. 
Stick  a  pin  into  the  middle  of  the  back,  another  into  the  breast, 
and  perhaps  others  elsewhere.  Fasten  the  end  of  a  spool  of 
sewing  cotton  to  one  of  the  pins,  and  carry  it  to  another, 
winding  the  thread  about  among  the  pins,  till  the  whole  surface 
is  covered  with  an  irregular  network.  Tighten  to  reduce  an 
undue  prominence,  loosen  over  a  depression  ;  but  let  the  wrap- 
ping as  a  whole  be  light,  firm  and  even.  This  procedure,  nicely 
executed,  will  give  a  smoothness  to  the  plumage  not  otherwise 
attainable,  and  may  be  made  to  produce  the  most  exquisite 


SPREADING   TAILS,    ETC.  89 

curves  particularly  about  the  head,  neck  and  breast.  The 
thread  should  be  left  on  till  the  bird  is  perfectly  dry ;  it 
may  then  be  unwound  or  cut  off,  and  the  pins  withdrawn. 
When  a  particular  patch  of  skin  is  out  of  place,  it  may  often 
be  pulled  into  position  and  pinned  there.  You  need  not  be 
afraid  of  sticking  pins  in  anywhere  ;  they  may  be  buried  in  the 
plumage  and  left  there,  or  withdrawn  when  the  skin  is  dry. 
In  addition  to  the  main  stuffing,  a  little  is  often  required  in 
particular  places.  As  for  the  legs,  they  should  be  filled  out 
in  all  such  cases  as  I  indicated  earlier  in  this  chapter ;  small 
birds  require  no  such  stuffing.  It  is  necessary  to  fill  out  the 
eyes  so  that  the  lids  rest  naturally  ;  it  may  be  done  as  hereto- 
fore directed,  or  by  putting  in  pledgets  of  cotton  from  the  out- 
side. .A  little  nice  stuffing  is  generally  required  about  the 
upper  throat.  To  stuff  a  bird  with  spread  wings  requires  a 
special  process,  in  most  cases.  The  wings  are  to  be  wired, 
exactly  as  directed  for  the  legs ;  they  may  then  be  placed  in 
any  shape.  But  with  most  small  birds,  and  those  with  short 
wings,  simple  pinning  in  the  half  spread  position  indicating 
fluttering  will  suffice ;  it  is  readily  accomplished  with  a  long, 
slender  insect  pin.  I  have  already  spoken  of  fixing  the  tail  by 
pinning  or  wiring  the  pope's  nose  to  the  tow  body  ;  it  may  be 
thus  fixed  at  any  desired  elevation  or  depression.  There  are 
two  ways  of  spreading  the  tail.  One  is  to  run  a  pointed  wire 
through  the  quills,  near  their  base,  where  the  wire  will  be 
hidden  by  the  coverts  ;  each  feather  may  be  set  at  any  required 
distance  from  the  next  by  sliding  it  along  this  wire.  This 
method  is  applicable  to  large  birds ;  for  snjall  ones  the  tail 
may  be  fixed  with  the  desired  spread  by  enclosing  it  near  its 
base,  in  a  split  match,  or  two  slips  of  card-board,  with  the  ends 
tied  together.  This  holds  the  feathers  until  they  dry  in  posi- 
tion, when  it  is  to  be  taken  off.  Crests  may  be  raised,  spread 
and  displayed  on  similar  principles.  A  small  crest,  like  that 
of  a  cardinal  or  cherry  bird,  for  instance,  may  be  held  up  till  it 
dries  in  position  by  sticking  in  behind  it  a  pin  with  a  little  ball 
of  cotton  on  its  head.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  make  a 
bird's  toes  grasp  a  support  by  tying  them  down  to  it  till  they 


90  HOW   TO   MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

dry.  The  toes  of  waders  that  do  not  lie  evenly  on  the  surface 
of  the  stand  may  be  tacked  down  with  small  brads.  The  bill 
may  be  pinned  open  or  shut,  as  desired,  by  the  method  already 
given.  Never  paint  or  varnish  a  bird's  bill  or  feet. 

Substitution  of  an  artificial  eye  for  the  natural  one  is  essen- 
tial for  the  good  looks  of  a  specimen.  Glass  eyes,  of  all  sizes 
and  colors,  may  be  purchased  at  a  moderate  cost.  The  pupil  is 
always  black  ;  the  iris  varies.  You  will,  of  course,  secure  the 
proper  color  if  it  is  known,  but  if  not,  put  in  a  dark  brown  or 
black  eye.  It  is  well  understood  that  this  means  nothing — it 
is  purely  conventional.  Yellow  is  probably  the  next  most  com- 
mon color ;  then  come  red,  white,  blue  and  green,  perhaps 
approximately  in  this  order  of  frequency.  But  do  not  use  these 
striking  colors  at  hap-hazard,  sacrificing  truth  perhaps,  to 
looks.  Eyes  are  generally  inserted  after  the  specimen  is  dry. 
Remove  a  portion  of  the  cotton  from  the  orbit,  and  moisten 
the  lids  till  they  are  perfectly  pliable ;  fix  the  eye  in  with 
putty  or  wet  plaster  of  Paris,  making  sure  that  the  lids  are 
naturally  adjusted  over  it.  It  goes  in  obliquely,  like  a  button 
through  a  button-hole.  Much  art  may  be  displayed  in  this 
little  matter,  making  a  bird  look  this  way  or  that,  to  carry  out 
the  general  "expression." 

On  finishing  a  specimen,  set  it  away  to  dry — the  time  re- 
quired varies,  of  course,  with  the  weather,  the  size  of  the  bird, 
its  fatness,  etc.  The  more  slowly  it  dries,  the  better  ;  there  is 
less  risk  of  the. skin  shrinking  irregularly.  You  will  often  find 
that  a  specimen  set  away  with  smooth  plumage  and  satisfac- 
tory curves  drie|  more  or  less  out  of  shape,  perhaps  with  the 
feathers  raised  in  places.  I  know  of  no  remedy  ;  it  may,  in  a 
measure,  be  prevented  by  scrupulous  care  in  making  the  body 
smooth  and  firm,  and  in  securing  slow,  equable  drying.  When 
perfectly  dry  remove  the  wrapping,  pull  out  the  superfluous 
pins  or  wires,  nip  off  the  others  so  short  that  the  ends  are  con- 
cealed, and  insert  the  eyes.  The  specimen  is  then  ready  to 
be  transferred  to  its  permanent  stand. 

Fixtures  for  the  display  of  the  object  of  course  vary  inter- 
minably. We  will  take  the  simplest  case,  of  a  large  collection 


STANDS  AND  ORNAMENTAL  SUPPORTS.        91 

of  mounted  birds  for  public  exhibition.  In  this  instance,  uni- 
formity and  simplicity  are  desiderata.  "Spread  eagle"  styles 
of  mounting,  artificial  rocks  and  flowers,  etc.,  are  entirely  out 
of  place  in  a  collection  of  any  scientific  pretensions,  or  de- 
signed for  popular  instruction.  Besides,  they  take  up  too  much 
room.  Artistic  grouping  of  an  extensive  collection  is  usually 
out  of  the  question ;  and  when  this  is  unattainable,  half-way 
efforts  in  that  direction  should  be  abandoned  in  favor  of  severe 
simplicity.  Birds  look  best  on  the  whole  in  uniform  rows,  as- 
sorted according  to  size,  as  far  as  a  natural  classification  allows. 
They  are  best  set  on  the  plainest  stands,  with  circular  base 
and  a  short  cylindrical  crossbar  lightly  turned  upright.  The 
stands  should  be  painted  dead-white  and  be  no  larger  than  is 
necessary  for  secure  support ;  a  neat  stiff  paper  label  may 
be  attached.*  A  small  collection  of  birds,  as  an  ornament  to  a 
private  residence,  offers  a  different  case ;  here,  variety  of  atti- 
tude and  appropriate  imitation  of  the  birds'  natural  surround- 
ings, are  to  be  secured.  A  miniature  tree,  on  which  a  number 
of  birds  may  be  placed,' is  readily  made.  Take  stout  wire,  and 
by  bending  it,  and  attaching  other  pieces,  get  the  framework 
of  the  tree  of  the  desired  size,  shape  and  number  of  perches. 
Wrap  it  closely  with  tow  to  a  proper  calibre,  remembering  that 
the  two  forks  of  a  stem  must  be  together  only  about  as  large 
as  the  stem  itself.  Gather  a  basket  full  of  lichens  and  tree 
moss ;  reduce  them  to  coarse  powder  by  rubbing  with  the 
hands  ;  besmear  the  whole  tree  with  mucilage  or  thin  glue,  and 
sift  the  lichen  powder  on  it  till  the  tow  is  completely  hidden. 
This  produces  a  very  natural  effect,  which  may  be  heightened 
by  separately  affixing  larger  scraps  of  lichen,  or  little  bunches 
of  moss ;  artificial  leaves  and  flowers  may  be  added  at  your 
taste.  The  groundwork  may  be  similarly  prepared  with  a  bit 
of  board,  made  adhesive  and  bestrewn  with  the  same  substance  ; 

*  A  very  simple  and  neat  way  of  attaching  the  label  to  the  stand  is  that  used  in 
the  Peabody  Academy  of  Science  and,  other  museums.  It  consists  of  narrow 
strips  of  tin  bent  over  at  each  end  so  as  to  hold  the  label,  and  fixed  to  the  stand  by 
a  small  tack  at  any  desired  angle.  These  tins  and  neat  red-lined  labels  can  be  had 
at  the  Naturalists'  Agency,  or  the  printed  names  can  be  cut  from  the  "  Check  List " 
and  used  for  labels  for  North  American  birds. 


92  HOW   TO   MAKE    A   BIRDSKIN. 

grasses  and  moss  may  be  added.  If  a  flat  surface  is  not  de. 
sired  soak  stout  pasteboard,  till  it  can  be  moulded  in  various 
irregular  elevations  and  depressions  ;  lay  it  over  the  board  and 
decorate  it  in  the  same  way.  Rocks  may  be  thus  nicely  imi- 
tated, with  the  addition  of  powdered  glass  of  various  colors. 
Such  a  lot  of  birds  is  generally  enclosed  in  a  cylindrical  glass 
case  with  arched  top.  As  it  stands  on  a  table  to  be  viewed 
from  different  points,  it  must  be  presentable  on  all  sides.  A 
niche  in  parlor  or  study  is  often  fitted  with  a  wall-case,  which, 
•when  artistically  arranged,  has  a  very  pleasing  effect.  As  such 
cases  may  be  of  considerable  size,  there  is  opportunity  for  the 
display  of  great  taste  in  grouping.  A  place  is  not  to  be  found 
for  a  bird,  but  a  bird  for  the  place — waders  and  swimmers 
below  on  the  ground,  perchers  on  projecting  rests  above.  The 
surroundings  may  be  prepared  by  the  methods  just  indicated. 
One  point  deserves  attention  here — since  the  birds  are  only 
viewed  from  the  front,  they  may  have  a  "  show-side  "  to  which 
everything  else  may  be  sacrificed.  Birds  are  represented  flying 
in  such  cases  more  readily  than  under  other  circumstances  — 
supported  on  a  concealed  wire  inserted  in  the  back  of  the  case. 
I  have  seen  some  very  successful  attempts  to  represent  a  bird 
swimming,  the  duck  being  let  down  part  way  through  an  oval 
hole  in  a  plate  of  thick  glass,  underneath  which  were  fixed 
stuffed  fishes,  shells  and  seaweed.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
add  that  in  all  ornamental  collections,  labels  or  other  scien- 
tific machinery  must  be  rigorously  suppressed. 

Transportation  of  mounted  birds  offers  obvious  difficulty. 
Unless  very  small,  they  are  best  secured  immovably  inside  a 
box  by  screwing  the  foot  of  the  stands  to  the  bottom  and  sides, 
so  that  they  stay  in  place  without  touching  each  other.  Or, 
they  may  be  carefully  packed  in  cotton,  with  or  without  re- 
moval of  the  stands.  Their  preservation  from  accidental 
injury  depends  upon  the  same  care  that  is  bestowed  upon  ordi- 
nary fragile  ornaments  of  the  parlor.  The  ravages  of  insects 
are  to  be  prevented  upon  the  principles  to  be  hereafter  given 
in  treating  of  the  preservation  of  birdskins. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PARTICULARS. 

§46.  DETERMINATION  OF  SEX.  This  is  an  important  matter^ 
which  must  never  be  neglected.  For  although  many  birds 
show  unequivocal  sexual  distinctions  of  size,  shape  and  color, 
like  those  of  the  barnyard  cock  and  hen  for  instance,  yet.  the 
•outward  characteristics  are  more  frequently  obscure,  if  not 
altogether  inappreciable  on  examination  of  the  skin  alone. 
Young  birds,  moreover,  are  usually  indistinguishable  as  to  sex, 
although  the  adults  of  the  same  species  may  be  easily  recog. 
nized.  The  rule  results,  that  the  sexual  organs  should  be  ex- 
amined, as  the  only  infallible  indices.  The  essential  organs  of 
masculinity  are  the  testicles;  similarly,  the  ovaries  contain  the 
essence  of  the  female  nature.  However  similar  the  accessory 
sexual  structures  may  be,  the  testicles  and  ovaries  are  always 
distinct.  The  male  organs  of  birds  never  leave  the  cavity  of 
the  belly  to  fill  an  external  bag  of  skin  (scrotum)  as  they  do 
among  mammalia,  they  remain  within  the  abdomen,  and  lie  in 
the  same  position  as  the  ovaries  of  the  female.  Both  these 
organs  are  situated  in  the  belly  opposite  what  corresponds  to 
the  "small  of  the  back,"  bound  closely  to  the  spine,  resting  on 
the  front  of  the  kidneys  near  their  fore  end.  The  testicles  are 
a  pair  of  subspherical  or  rather  ellipsoidal  bodies,  usually  of 
the  same  size,  shape  and  color ;  and  are  commonly  of  a  dull 
opaque  whitish  tint.  They  always  lie  close  together.  A  re- 
markable fact  connected  with  them'  is,  that  they  are  not  always 
of  the  same  size  in  the  same  bird,  being  subject  to  periodical 
enlargement  during  the  breeding  season,  and  corresponding 
atrophy  at  other  seasons.  Thus  the  testicles  of  a  house  spar- 
row, no  bigger  than  a  pin's  head  in  winter,  swell  to  the  size  of 
peas  in  April.  The  ovary  (for  although  this  organ  is  paired 
originally,  only  one  is  usually  functionally  developed  in  birds) 
will  be  recognized  as  a  flattish  mass  of  irregular  contour,  and 
usually  whitish  color  ;  when  inactive,  it  simply  appears  of  finely 
granular  structure  which  may  require  a  hand  lens  to  be  made 

(93) 


94  MISCELLANEOUS  PARTICULARS. 

out;  when  producing  eggs,  its  appearance  is  unmistakable. 
Both  testis  and  ovary  may  further  be  recognized  by  a  thread 
leading  to  the  end  of  the  lower  bowels — in  one  case  the  sperm- 
duct,  in  the  other  the  oviduct ;  the  latter  is  usually  much  the 
more  conspicuous,  as  it  at  times  transmits  the  perfect  egg. 
There  is  no  difficulty  in  reaching  the  site  of  these  organs.  Lay 
the  bird  on  the  right  side,  its  belly  toward  you :  cut  with  the 
scissors  through  the  belly-walls  diagonally  from  anus  to  the 
root  of  the  last  rib — or  further,  snipping  across  a  few  of  the 
lower  ribs,  if  these  continue  far  down,  as  they  do  in  a  loon  for 
instance.  Press  the  whole  mass  of  intestines  aside  collectively, 
and  you  at  once  see  to  the  small  of  the  back.  There  you  ob- 
serve the  kidneys — large,  lobular,  dark  reddish  masses  moulded 
into  the  concavity  of  the  sacrum  (or  back  middle  bone  of  the 
pelvis)  and  on  their  surface,  towards  their  fore  end,  lie  testes 
or  ovary,  as  just  described.  The  only  precaution  required  is, 
not  to  mistake  for  testicles  a  pair  of  small  bodies  capping  the 
kidneys.  These  are  the  adrenals  or  "  supra-renal  capsules  " — 
organs  whose  function  is  unknown,  but  with  which  at  any  rate 
we  have  nothing  to  do  in  this  connection.  They  occur  in  both 
sexes,  and  if  the  testicles  are  not  immediately  seen,  or  the 
ovary  not  at  once  recognized,  .they  might  easily  be  mistaken 
for  testicles.  Observe  that  instead  of  lying  in  front,  they 
cap  the  kidneys ;  that  they  are  usually  yellowish  instead  of 
opaque  whitish  ;  and  that  they  have  not  the  firm,  smooth,  reg- 
ular sphericity  of  the  testicles.  The  sex  determined,  use  the 
sign  <^  or  9  to  designate  it,  as  already  explained.  In  the  very 
rare  cases  of  impotence  or  sterility  among  birds,  of  course  no 
organs  will  be  observed  ;  but  I  should  dislike  to  become  respon- 
sible for  such  labelling  without  very  careful  examination.  The 
organs  of  a  small  bird  out  of  the  breeding  season  are  never 
conspicuous,  but  may  always  be  found  on  close  scrutiny,  unless 
the  parts  are  disintegrated  by  a  shot. 

§47.  RECOGNITION  OF  AGE  is  a  matter  of  ornithological  ex- 
perience requiring  in  many  or  most  cases  great  familiarity  with 
birds  for  its  even  approximate  accomplishment.  There  are, 


EXAMINATION    OF    THE    STOMACH.  95 

however,  some  unmistakable  signs  of  immaturity,  even  after  a 
bird  has  become  full-feathered,  that  persist  for  at  least  one 
season.  These  are,  in  the  first  place,  a  peculiar  soft  fluffy 
"feel"  of  the  plumage — the  feathers  lack  a  certain  smooth- 
ness, density  and  stiffening  which  they  subsequently  acquire. 
Secondly,  the  bill  and  feet  are  softer  than  those  of  the  adults  ; 
the  corners  of  the  mouth  are  puffy  and  flabby,  the  edges  and 
point  of  the  bill  are  dull,  and  the  scales,  etc.,  of  the  legs  are 
not  sharply  cut.  Thirdly,  the  flesh  itself  is  tender,  and  pale 
colored.  These  are  some  of  the  points  common  to  all  birds, 
and  are  independent  of  the  special  markings  that  belong  to  the 
youth  of  particular  species.  Some  birds  are  actually  larger  for 
a  while  after  leaving  the  nest,  than  in  after  years  when  the 
frame  seems  to  shrink  somewhat  in  acquiring  the  compactness 
of  senility.  On  the  other  hand,  the  various  members,  espe- 
cially the  bill  and  feet,  are  proportionally  smaller  at  first. 
Newly  growing  quills  are  usually  recognized  on  sight,  the 
barrel  being  dark  colored  and  full  of  liquid,  while  the  vanes 
are  incomplete.  In  studying,  for  example,  the  shape  of  a  wing 
or  tail,  there  is  always  reason  to  suspect  that  the  natural  pro- 
portions are  not  yet  presented,  unless  the  quill  is  dry,  colorless 
and  empty,  or  only  occupied  with  shrunken  white  pith. 

§48.  EXAMINATION  OF  THE  STOMACH  frequently  leads  to  inter- 
esting observations,  and  is  always  worth  while.  In  the  first 
place,  we  learn  most  unquestionably  the  nature  of  the  bird's 
food,  which  is  a  highly  important  item  in  its  natural  history. 
Secondly,  we  often  secure  valuable  specimens  in  other  depart- 
ments of  zoology,  particularly  entomology.  Birds  consume 
incalculable  numbers  of  insects,  the  harder  kinds  of  which? 
such  as  beetles,  are  not  seldom  found  intact  in  their  stomaqhs ; 
and  a  due  percentage  of  these  represent  rare  and  curious  spe- 
cies. The  gizzards  of  birds  of  prey,  in  particular,  should 
always  be  inspected,  in  search  of  the  small  mammals,  etc., 
they  devour ;  and  even  if  the  creatures  are  unfit  for  preserva- 
tion, we  at  least  learn  of  their  occurrence,  perhaps  unknown 
before  in  a  particular  region.  Mollusk-feeding  and  fish-eating 


96  MISCELLANEOUS  PARTICULARS. 

birds  yield  their  share  of  specimens.  The  alimentary  canal  is 
often  the  seat  of  parasites  of  various  kinds,  interesting  to  the 
helminthologist ;  other  species  are  to  be  found  under  the  skin, 
in  the  body  of  muscle,  in  the  brain,  etc.  Most  birds  are  also 
infested  with  external  parasites  of  many  kinds,  so  various, 
that  almost  every  leading  species  has  its  own  sort  of  louse, 
tick,  etc.  Since  these  creatures  are  only  at  home  with  a  live 
host,  they  will  be  found  crawling  on  the  surface  of  the  plu- 
mage, preparing  for  departure,  as  soon  as  the  body  cools  after 
death.  There  is  in  effect  much  to  learn  of  a  bird  aside  from 
what  the  prepared  specimen  teaches,  and  moreover  apart  from 
regular  anatomical  investigations.  Whenever  practicable,  brief 
items  should  be  recorded  on  the  label,  as  already  mentioned. 

§49.  RESTORATION  OF  POOR  SKINS.  If  your  cabinet  be  a 
"general"  one,  comprising  specimens  from  various  sources, 
you  will  frequently  happen  to  receive  skins  so  badly  prepared 
as  to  be  unpleasant  objects,  besides  failing  to  show  their  spe- 
cific characters.  There  is  of  course  no  supplying  of  missing 
parts  or  plumage ;  but  if  the  defect  be  simply  deformity,  this 
may  usually  be  in  a  measure  remedied.  The  point  is  simply 
to  relax  the  skin,  and  then  proceed  as  if  it  were  freshly  removed 
from  the  bird  ;  it  is  what  bird  stuffers  constantly  do,  in  mount- 
ing birds  from  prepared  skins.  The  relaxation  is  effected  by 
moisture  alone.  Remove  the  stuffing ;  fill  the  interior  with 
cotton  or  tow  saturated  with  water,  yet  not  dripping  :  put  pads 
of  the  same  under  the  wings  ;  wrap  the  bill  and  feet,  and  set 
the  specimen  in  a  damp  cool  place.  Small  birds  soften  very 
readily  and  completely  ;  the  process  may  be  facilitated  by  per- 
sistent manipulation.  This  is  the  usual  method,  but  there  is 
another,  more  thorough  and  more  effective  ;  it  is  exposure  to  a 
vapor-bath.  The  appointments  of  the  kitchen  stove  furnish  all 
the  apparatus  required  for  an  extempore  "steamer ;"  the  regu- 
lar fixture  is  a  tin  vessel  much  like  a  wash-boiler,  with  closed 
lid,  false  bottom  and  stopcock  at  lower  edge.  On  the  false 
bottom  is  placed  a  heavy  layer  of  gypsum,  completely  satu- 
rated with  water ;  the  birds  are  laid  on  a  perforated  tray  above 


ALCOHOLIC    SPECIMENS.  97 

it ;  and  a  gentle  heat  is  maintained  over  a  stove.  The  vapor 
penetrates  every  part  of  the  skin,  and  completely  relaxes  it, 
without  actually  wetting  the  feathers.  The  time  required  varies 
greatly  of  course ;  observation  is  the  best  guide.  The  chief 
precaution  is  not  to  let  the  thing  get  too  hot.  Professor  Baird 
has  remarked  that  crumpled  or  bent  feathers  may  have  much  of 
their  original  elasticity  restored  by  dipping  in  hot  water.  Im- 
mersion for  a  few  seconds  suffices,  when  the  feathers  will  be  ob- 
served to  straighten  out.  Shaking  off  superfluous  water,  they 
may  be  simply  left  to  dry  or  they  may  be  dried  with  plaster. 
The  method  is  chiefly  applicable  to  the  large  feathers  of  the 
wings  and  tail.  Soiled  plumage  of  dried  skins  may  be  treated 
exactly  as  in  the  case  of  fresh  skins. 

§50.  MUMMIFICATION.  As  before  mentioned,  decay  may  be 
arrested  by  injections  of  carbolic  acid  and  other  antiseptics ; 
if  the  tissues  be  sufficiently  permeated  with  these  substances, 
the  body  will  keep  indefinitely  ;  it  dries  and  hardens,  becoming, 
in  short,  a  "  mummy."  Injection  should  be  done  by  the  mouth 
and  vent,  be  thorough,  and  be  repeated  several  times  as  the 
fluid  dries  in.  It  is  an  improvement  on  this  to  disembowel, 
and  fill  the  belly  with  saturated  tow  or  cotton.  Due  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  soil  the  feathers  in  an}T  case,  nor  should 
the  carbolic  solution  come  in  contact  with  the  hands,  for  it  is  a 
powerful  irritant  poison.  I  mention  the  process  chiefly  to  con- 
demn it  as  an  atrocious  one ;  I  cannot  imagine  what  circum- 
stances would  recommend  it,  while  only  an  extreme  emergency 
could  justify  it.  It  is  further  objectionable  because  it  appears 
to  lend  a  dingy  hue  to  some  plumages,  and  to  dull  most  of 
them  perceptibly.  Birds  prepared  —  rather  unprepared — in 
this  way,  may  be  relaxed  by  the  method  just  described,  and 
then  skinned  ;  but  the  operation  is  rather  difficult. 

§51.  WET  PREPARATIONS.  By  this  term  is  technically  under- 
stood an  object  immersed  in  some  preservative  fluid.  It  is 
highly  desirable  to  obtain  more  information  of  birds  than  their 
stuffed  skins  can  ever  furnish,  and  their  structure  cannot  be 

7 


98  MISCELLANEOUS  PARTICULARS. 

always  examined  by  dissection  on  the  spot.  In  fact,  a  certain 
small  proportion  of  the  birds  of  any  protracted  or  otherwise 
"heavy"  collecting  may  be  preferably  and  very  profitably  pre- 
served in  this  way.  Specimens  in  too  poor  plumage  to  be 
worth  skinning  may  be  thus  utilized ;  so  may  the  bodies  of 
skinned  birds,  which,  although  necessarily  defective,  retain  all 
the  viscera,  and  also  afford  osteological  material.  Alcohol  is 
the  liquid  usually  employed  and,  of  all  the  various  articles 
recommended,  seems  to  answer  best  on  the  whole.  I  have 
used  a  very  weak  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc  with  excellent 
results ;  it  should  not  be  strong  enough  to  show  the  slightest 
turbidity.  As  glass  bottles  are  liable  to  break  when  travelling, 
do  not  fit  corners,  and  offer  practical  annoyance  about  corkage  ; 
rectangular  metal  cans,  preferably  of  copper,  with  screw-lid 
opening,  are  advisable.  They  are  to  be  set  in  small,  strong 
wooden  boxes,  made  to  leave  a  little  room  for  the  lid  wrench, 
muslin  bags  for  doing  up  separate  parcels,  parchment  for 
labels,  etc.  Unoccupied  space  in  the  cans  should  be  filled  with 
tow  or  a  similar  substance,  to  prevent  the  specimens  from 
swashing  about.  Labelling  should  be  on  parchment :  the  writ- 
ing should  be  perfectly  dry  before  immersion  :  india-ink  is  the 
best.  Skinned  bodies  should  be  numbered  to  correspond  with 
the  dried  skin  from  which  taken ;  otherwise  they  may  not  be 
identifiable.  Large  birds  thrown  in  unskinned  should  have 
the  belly  opened,  to  let  in  the  alcohol  freely.  Birds  may  be 
skinned,  after  being  in  alcohol,  by  simply  drying  them  :  they 
often  make  fair  specimens.  They  are  best  withdrawn  by  the 
bill,  that  the  " swash"  of  the  alcohol  at  the  moment  of  emer- 
sion may  set  the  plumage  all  one  way,  and  hung  up  to  dry, 
untouched.  Watery  moisture  that  may  remain  after  evapora- 
tion of  the  alcohol  may  be  dried  with  plaster. 

§52.  OSTEOLOGICAL  PREPARATIONS.  While  complete  skele- 
tonizing of  a  bird  is  a  special  art  of  some  difficulty,  and  one 
that  does  not  fall  within  the  scope  of  this  treatise,  I  may  prop- 
erly mention  two  bony  preparations  very  readily  made,  and 
susceptible  of  rendering  ornithology  essential  service.  I  refer 


SKULLS  AND  BREAST  BOXES.  99 

to  the  skull,  and  to  the  breast  bone  with  its  principal  attach- 
ments. These  parts  of  the  skeleton  are,  as  a  rule,  so  highly 
characteristic  that  they  afford  in  most  cases  invaluable  zoo- 
logical items.  To  save  a  skull  is  of  course  to  sacrifice  a  skin, 
to  all  intents  ;  but  you  often  have  mutilated  or  deca3Ted  speci- 
mens that  are  very  profitably  utilized  in  this  way.  The  breast 
bone,  excepting  when  mutilated,  is  always  preservable  with 
the  skin,  and  for  "  choice "  invoices  may  form  its  natural  ac- 
companiment. You  want  to  remove  along  with  it  the  cora- 
coids  (the  stout  bones  connecting  the  breast  bone  with  the 
shoulders),  the  merrythought  intervening  between  these  bones, 
and  the  shoulder-blades,  all  without  detachment  from  each 
other.  Slice  off  the  large  breast  muscles  close  to  the  bone ; 
and  divide  their  insertions  with  the  wing  bones,  scrape  or  cut 
away  the  muscles  that  tie  the  shoulder-blades  to  the  chest; 
snip  off  the  ribs  close  to  the  side  of  the  breast  bone ;  sever  a 
tough  membrane  usually  found  between  the  prongs  of  the  wish- 
bone ;  then,  by  taking  hold  of  the  shoulders,  you  can  lift  out 
the  whole  affair,  dividing  some  slight  connections  underneath 
the  bone  and  behind  it.  The  following  points  require  atten- 
tion :  the  breast  bone  often  has  long  slender  processes  behind 
and  on  the  sides  (the  common  fowl  is  one  of  the  extreme  illus- 
trations of  this)  liable  to  be  cut  by  mistake  for  ribs,  or  to  be 
snapped :  the  shoulder-blades  usually  taper  to  a  point,  easity 
broken  off;  the  merrythought  is  sometimes  very  delicate,  or 
defective.  When  travelling,  it  is  generally  not  advisable  to 
make  perfect  preparations  of  either  skull  or  sternum  :  they  are 
best  dried  with  only  superfluous  flesh  removed,  and  besprin- 
kled with  arsenic.  The  skull,  if  perfectly  cleaned,  is  particu- 
larly liable  to  lose  the  ocld-shaped  pronged  bones  that  hinge 
the  jaw,  and  the  freely  movable  pair  that  push  on  the  palate 
from  behind.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  respecting  the 
identification  of  these  bones,  particularly  the  sternum,  which 
should  invariably  bear  the  number  of  the  specimen  to  which  it 
belongs.  A  skull  is  more  likely  to  be  able  to  speak  for  itself, 
and  besides,  is  not  usually  accompanied  by  a  skin ;  neverthe- 
less, any  record  tending  to  facilitate  its  recognition  should  be 


100          MISCELLANEOUS  PARTICULARS. 

duly  entered  on  the  register.  There  are  methods,  with  which  I 
am  not  familiar,  of  making  elegant  bony  preparations.  You 
may  secure  very  good  results  by  simply  boiling  the  bones 
or,  what  is  perhaps  better,  macerating  them  in  water  till  the 
flesh  is  completely  rotted  away,  and  then  bleaching  them  in 
the  sun.  A  little  potassa  or  soda  hastens  the  process.  With 
breast  bones,  if  }rou  can  stop  the  process  just  when  the  flesh 
is  completely  dissolved  but  the  tougher  ligaments  remain,  you 
secure  a  ''natural"  preparation,  as  it  is  called;  if  the  liga- 
ments go  too,  the  associate  parts  of  a  large  specimen  may  be 
wired  together,  those  of  a  small  one  glued.  I  think  it  best, 
with  skulls,  to  clean  them  entirely  of  ligament  as  well  as 
muscle ;  for  the  underneath  parts  are  usually  those  conveying 
the  most  desirable  information,  and  they  should  not  be  in  the 
slightest  degree  obscured.  Since  in  such  case  the  anvil-shaped 
bones,  the  palatal  cylinders  already  mentioned,  and  sometimes 
other  portions  come  apart,  the  whole  are  best  kept  in  a  suitable 
box.  I  prefer  to  see  a  skull  with  the  sheath  of  the  beak  re- 
moved, though  in  some  cases,  particularly  of  hard  billed  birds, 
it  may  profitably  be  left  on.  The  completed  preparations 
should  be  fully  labelled,  by  writing  on  the  bone,  in  preference 
to  an  accompanying  or  attached  paper  slip,  which  may  be  lost. 
Some  object  to  this,  as  others  do  to  writing  on  eggs,  that  it 
"defaces"  the  specimen  ;  but  I  confess  I  see  in  dry  bones  no 
beauty  but  that  of  utility.* 

§53.  NESTS  AND  EGGS.f  A  few  words  upon  this  subject  will 
not  come  amiss.  Ornithology  and  oology  are  twin  studies,  or 
rather  one  includes  the  other.  A  collection  of  nests  and  eggs 
is  indispensable  in  a  thorough  study  of  birds  :  and  many  persons 
find  peculiar  pleasure  in  forming  one.  Some,  however,  shrink 
from  "robbing  birds'  nests"  as  something  particularly  cruel, 
a  sentiment  springing,  no  doubt,  from  the  sympathy  and  def- 

*Prof.  Newton's  excellent  suggestions  for  saving  parts  of  the  skeleton  arerepub- 
lished  in  one  of  the  Smithsonian  Reports,  and  may  also  be  had  separately. 

t  Complete  instructions  for  collecting  and  preserving  nests  and  eggs  are  pub- 
lished by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  can  be  obtained  from  the  Naturalists' 
Agency. 


NESTS   AND   EGGS.  101 

erence  that  the  tender  office  of  maternity  inspires  ;  but  with 
all  proper  respect  for  the  humane  emotion,  it  may  be  said 
simply,  that  birds'-nesting  is  not  nearly  so  cruel  as  bird- 
shooting.  What  I  said  in  a  former  section,  in  endeavoring  to 
guide  search  for  birds,  applies  in  substance  to  hunting  for  their 
nests ;  the  essential  difference  is,  that  the  latter  are  of  course 
essential  objects,  and  consequently  more  liable  to  be  over- 
looked, other  things  being  equal,  than  birds  themselves.  I  have 
not  nryself  proven  a  very  successful  finder  of  eggs,  for  no  other 
reason  than  that  a  motionless  object  does  not  arrest  my  atten- 
tion, when  the  swaying  of  a  leaf,  or  the  faintest  chirp,  would  be 
instantly  noted.  Most  birds  nest  on  trees  or  bushes ;  many 
on  the  ground  and  on  rocks ;  others  in  hollows.  Some  build 
elegant,  elaborate  structures,  endlessly  varied  in  details  of 
form  and  material*;  others  make  no  nest  whatever.  In  this 
country,  egging  is  chiefly  practicable  in  May  and  during  the 
summer ;  but  some  species,  particularly  birds  of  prey,  begin 
to  lay  in  January  while,  on  our  southern  border  at  least,  the 
season  of  reproduction  is  protracted  through  September ;  so 
there  is  really  a  long  period  for  search.  Particular  nests,  of 
course,  like  the  birds  that  build  them,  can  only  be  found 
through  ornithological  knowledge ;  but  general  search  is  usu- 
ally rewarded  with  a  varied  assortment.  The  best  clew  to  a 
hidden  nest  is  the  actions  of  the  parents ;  patient  watchful- 
ness is  commonly  successful  in  tracing  the  birds  home.  As 
the  science  of  oology  has  not  progressed  to  the  point  of  deter- 
mining from  the  nests  and  eggs,  to  what  bird  they  belong,  in 
even  a  majority  of  cases,  the  utmost  care  in  authentication  is 
indispensable.  To  be  worth  anything,  not  to  be  worse  than 
worthless  in  fact,  an  egg  must  be  identified  beyond  question  ; 
must  be  not  only  unsuspected,  but  above  suspicion.*  It  is 
often  extremely  difficult  to  make  an  unquestionable  determi- 
nation, as  for  instance  when  numbers  of  birds  of  similar  hab- 
its are  breeding  close  together ;  or  even  impossible,  as  in  case 

*A  shade  of  suspicion  is  often  attached  to  dealers' eggs  — not  necessarily  im- 
plying bad  faith  or  even  negligence  on  the  dealers'  part,  but  from  the  nature  of  the 
case. 


102          MISCELLANEOUS  PARTICULARS. 

the  parent  eludes  observation.  Sometimes  the  most  acute  ob- 
server m&y  be  mistaken,  circumstances  appearing  to  prove  a 
parentage  when  such  is  not  the  fact.  It  is  in  general  advis- 
able to  secure  the  parent  with  the  eggs ;  if  shot  or  snared  on 
the  nest,  the  identification  is  simply  unquestionable.  If  you 
do  not  yourself  know  the  species,  it  then  becomes  necessary  to 
secure  the  specimen,  antl  retain  it  with  the  eggs. 

It  is  not  required  to  make  a  perfect  preparation  ;  the  head, 
or  better,  the  head  and  a  wing,  will  answer  the  purpose. 
When  egging  in  downright  earnest,  a  pair  of  climbing  irons 
becomes  practically  indispensable ;  these  are  the  only  field  im- 
plements required  in  addition  to  those  already  specified.  For 
blowing  eggs,  a  set  of  special  tools  is  needed.  These  are  "  egg- 
drills  "  —  steel  implements  with  a  sharp  pointed  conical  Lead 
of  rasping  surface,  and  a  slender  shaft ;  several  such,  of  differ- 
ent sizes,  are  needed  ;  also  blow-pipes  of  different  sizes  ;  a  deli- 
cate thin  pair  of  scissors  ;  light  spring  forceps ;  and  a  small 
syringe.*  Eggs  should  never  be  blown  in  the  old  way  of 
making  a  hole  at  each  end ;  nor  are  two  holes  anywhere  usu- 
ally required.  Opening  should  be  effected  on  one  side,  prefer- 
ably that  showing  least  conspicuous  or  characteristic  markings. 
If  two  are  made,  they  should  be  rather  near  together ;  on  the 
same  side  at  any  rate.  But  one  is  generally  sufficient,  as 
the  fluid  contents  can  escape  around  the  blow-pipe.  Holding 
the  egg  gently  but  steadily  in  the  fingers,  apply  the  point  of 
the  drill  perpendicularly  to  the  surface,  unless  it  be  preferred 
to  prick  with  a  needle  first.  A  twirling  motion  of  the  instru- 
ment gradually  enlarges  the  opening  by  filing  away  the  shell, 
and  so  bores  a  smooth  edged  circular  hole.  This  should  be  no 
larger  than  is  required  to  insert  the  blow-pipe  loosely,  with 
room  for  the  contents  to  escape  around  it.  The  blowing 
should  be  continuous  and  equable,  rather  than  forcible ;  a 
strong  puff  easily  bursts  a  delicate  egg.  Be  sure  that  all 
the  contents  are  removed ;  then  rinse  the  interior  thoroughly 
with  clean  water,  either  by  taking  a  mouthful  and  sending  it 

*We  notice  an  advertisement  in  the  AMERICAN  NATURALIST  to  the  effect  that 
these  various  instruments  can  be  had  at  the  Naturalist^'  Agency,  Salem,  Mass. 


BLOWING   EGGS.  103 

through  the  blow-pipe,  or  with  the  syringe.  Blowing  eggs  is 
a  rather  fatiguing  process  —  more  so  than  it  might  seem  ;  the 
cheek  muscles  soon  tire,  and  the  operator  actually  becomes 
"  blown "  himself  before  long.  The  operation  had  better  be 
done  over  a  basin  of  water,  both  to  receive  the  contents,  and 
to  catch  the  egg  if  it  slip  from  the  fingers.  The  membrane 
lining  the  shell  should  be  removed  if  possible.  It  may  be 
seized  by  the  edge  around  the  hole,  with  the  forceps,  and 
drawn  out,  or  picked  out  with  a  bent  pin.  Eggs  that  have 
been  incubated  of  course  offer  difficulty,  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  embryo.  The  hole  may  be  drilled,  as  before,  but 
it  must  be  larger ;  and  as  the  drill  is  apt  to  split  a  shell  after 
it  has  bored  beyond  a  certain  size  of  hole,  it  is  often  weU  to 
prick,  with  a  fine  needle,  a  circular  series  of  minute  holes 
almost  touching,  and  then  remove  the  enclosed  circle  of  shell. 
This  must  be  very  carefully  done,  or  the  needle  will  indent  or 
crack  the  shell,  which,  it  may  be  remembered,  grows  more 
brittle  towards  the  time  of  hatching.  Well  formed  embryos 
cannot  be  got  bodily  through  any  hole  that  can  be  made  in  an 
egg :  they  must  be  extracted  piecemeal.  They  may  be  cut  te 
pieces  with  the  slender  scissors  introduced  through  the  hole, 
and  the  fragments  be  picked  out  with  the  forceps,  hooked  out, 
or  blown  out.  No  embryo  should  be  forced  through  a  Hole  too 
small ;  there  is  every  probability  that  the  shell  will  burst  at 
the  critical  moment.  When  emptied  and  rinsed,  eggs  should 
be  gently  wiped  dry,  and  set  hole  downward  on  blotting  paper 
to  drain.  Broken  eggs  may  be  neatly  mended,  sometimes  with 
a  film  of  collodion,  or  a  bit  of  tissue  paper  and  paste,  or  the 
edges  may  be  simply  stuck  together  with  any  adhesive  sub- 
stance. Even  when  fragmentary  a  rare  egg  is  worth  preserv- 
ing. Eggs  should  ordinarily  be  left  empty ;  indeed,  the  only 
case  in  which  any  filling  is  admissible  is  that  of  a  defective 
specimen  to  which  some  slight  solid^  can  be  imparted  with 
cotton.  It  is  unnecessary  even  to  close  up  the  hole.  It  is 
best,  on  all  accounts,  to  keep  eggs  in  sets,  a  "  set"  being  the 
natural  clutch,  or  whatever  less  number  were  taken  from  a 
nest.  The  most  scrupulous  attention  must  be  paid  to  accu- 


104          MISCELLANEOUS  PARTICULARS. 

rate,  complete,  and  permanent  labelling.  So  important  is  this, 
that  the  undeniable  defacing  of  a  specimen,  by  writing  on 
it,  is  no  offset  to  the  advantages  accruing  from  such  fixity  of 
record.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  attach  a  label  as  is 
done  with  a  birdskin,  and  a  loose  label  is  always  in  danger  of 
being  lost  or  misplaced.  Write  on  the  shell,  then,  as  many 
items  as  possible  ;  if  done  neatly,  on  the  side  in  which  the  hole 
was  bored,  at  least  one  good  "show  side"  remains.  An  egg 
should  always  bear  the  same  number  as  the  parent,  in  the  col- 
lector's record.  In  a  general  collection,  where  a  separate 
ornithological  and  oological  register  is  kept,  identification  of 
egg  with  parent  is  nevertheless  readily  secured,  by  making  one 
the  numerator  the  other  the  denominator  of  a  fraction,  to  be 
simply  inverted  in  its  respective  application.  Thus  bird  No. 
456,  and  egg  No.  123,  are  identified  by  making  the  former  f  |f , 
the  latter  ]ff .  All  the  eggs  of  a  clutch  should  have  the  same 
number.  If  the  shell  be  large  enough,  the  name  of  the  species 
should  be  written  on  it ;  if  too  small,  it  should  be  accompanied 
by  a  label  and  may  have  the  name  indicated  by  a  number 
referring  to  a  certain  catalogue.  .  According  to  the  present 
"Check  List"  for  example,  "  No.  1 "  would  indicate  Turdus  mi- 
gratorius.  The  date  of  collection  is  a  highly  desirable  item  ;  it 
may  be  abbreviated  thus ;  3  |  6  |  72  means  June  3,  1872.  It 
is  well  to  have  the  egg  authenticated  by  the  collector's  initials 
at  least.  Since  "  sets  "  of  eggs  may  be  broken,  up  for  distribu- 
tions to  other  cabinets  yet  permanent  indication  of  the  size  of 
the  clutch  be  wanted,  it  is  well  to  have  some  method.  A  good 
one  is  to  write  the  number  of  the  clutch  on  each  egg  compos- 
ing it,  giving  each  egg  of  the  set,  moreover,  its  individual  num- 
ber. Supposing  for  example  the  clutch  No.  ^ff  contained  five 
eggs ;  one  of  them  would  be  Jf  jj  |  5  |  1 :  the  next  Jf-g  |  5  |  2, 
and  so  on.  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  all  such  arbi- 
trary memoranda  must  be  systematic,  and  be  accompanied  by 
a  key.  Eggs  may  be  kept  in  cabinets  of  shallow  drawers  in 
little  pasteboard  trays,  each  holding  a  set,  and  containing  a 
paper  label  on  which  various  items  that  cannot  be  traced  on 
the  shell  are  written  in  full.  Such  trays  should  all  be  of  the 


KEEPING   EGGS   AND   NESTS.  105 

same  depth — half  an  inch  is  a  convenient  depth  for  general 
purposes  ;  and  of  assorted  sizes,  say  from  one  inch  by  one  and 
one-half  inches  up  to  three  by  six  inches ;  it  is  convenient  to 
have  the  dimensions  regularly  graduated  by  a  constant  factor 
of,  say  half  an  inch,  so  that  the  little  boxes  may  be  set  side 
by  side,  either  lengthwise  or  crosswise,  without  interference. 
Eggs  may  also  be  kept  safely,  advantageously,  and  with  at- 
tractive effect,  in  the  nests  themselves,  in  which  a  fluff  of 
cotton  may  be  placed  to  steady  them.  When  not  too  bulky, 
too  loosely  constructed,  or  of  material  unsuitable  for  preser- 
vation, nests  should  always  be  collected.  Those  that  are  very 
closely  attached  to  twigs  should  not  be  torn  off.  Nests  threat- 
ening to  come  to  pieces,  or  too  frail  to  be  handled  without 
injury,  may  be  secured  by  sewing  through  and  through  with 
fine  thread :  indeed,  this  is  an  advisable  precaution  in  most 
cases.  Packing  eggs  for  transportation  requires  much  care, 
but  the  precautions  to  be  taken  are  obvious.  I  will  only 
remark  that  there  is  no  safer  way  than  to  leave  them  in  their 
own  nests,  each  enwrapped  in  cotton,  with  which  the  whole 
cavity  is  to  be  lightly  filled ;  the  nests  themselves  being 
packed  close  enough  to  be  perfectly  steady.  Single  eggs  may 
be  safely  mailed  to  any  distance  in  auger-holes  bored  in  wood. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

CAEE  OF  A  COLLECTION, 

§54.  WELL  PRESERVED  SPECIMENS  will  last  "forever  and  a 
day,"  so  far  as  natural  decay  is  concerned.  I  have  handled 
birds  in  good  state,  shot  back  in  the  twenties,  and  have  no 
doubt  that  some  eighteenth  century  preparations  are  still  ex- 
tant. The  precautions  against  defilement,  mutilation  or  other 
mechanical  injury,  are  self-evident,  and  may  be  dismissed  with 
the  remark,  that  white  plumages,  especially  if  at  all  greasy, 
require  the  most  care  to  guard  against  soiling.  We  have, 
however,  to  fight  for  our  possessions  against  a  host  of  ene- 
mies, individually  despicable  but  collectively  formidable,  foes 
so  determined  that  untiring  vigilance  is  required  to  ward  off 
their  attacks  even  temporarily,  whilst  in  the  end  they  prove 
invincible.  It  may  be  said  that  to  be  eaten  up  by  insects  is 
the  natural  end  of  all  birdskins  not  sooner  destroyed.  The 
matter,  therefore,  demands  particular  attention. 

§55.  INSECT  PESTS  with  which  we  have  to  contend  belong 
principally  to  the  two  families  Tineidce  and  Dermestidce  —  the 
former  are  moths,  the  latter  beetles.  The  moths  are  of  species 
identical  with,  and  allied  to,  the  common  clothes  moth,  Tinea 
flavifrontella,  the  carpet  moth,  T.  tapetzella,  etc., — small  species 
observed  flying  about  our  apartments  and  museums,  in  May  and 
during  the  summer.  The  beetles  are  several  rather  small  thick- 
set species,  principally  of  the  genera  Dermestes  and  Antlirenus. 
The  larvae  ("caterpillars"  of  the  moths,  and  "grubs"  of  the 
beetles)  appear  to  be  the  chief  agents  of  the  destruction.  The 
presence  of  the  mature  insects  is  usually  readily  detected  ;  on 
disturbing  an  infested  suite  of  specimens  the  moths  flutter 
about,  and  the  beetles  crawl  as  fast  as  they  can  into  shelter,  or 
simulate  death.  The  insidious  larvae,  however,  are  not  so  easily 
observed,  burrowing  as  they  do  among  the  feathers,  or  in  the 

(106) 


INSECT  PESTS  —  CASES  FOR  STORING  SKINS.     107 

interior  of  a  skin ;  whilst  the  minute  eggs  are  commonly 
altogether  overlooked.  But  the  "bugs"  are  no't  long  at  work 
without  leaving  their  unmistakable  traces.  Shreds  of  feathers 
float  off  when  a  specimen  is  handled,  or  fly  out  on  flipping  the 
skin  with  the  fingers,  and  in  bad  cases  even  whole  bundles  of 
plumes  come  awa}T  at  a  touch.  Sometimes,  leaving  the  plu- 
mage intact,  bugs  eat  away  the  horn}^  covering  of  the  bill  and 
feet,  making  a  peculiarly  unhappy  and  irreparable  mutilation. 
I  suppose  this  piece  of  work  is  done  by  a  particular  insect,  but 
if  so  I  do  not  know  what  one.  -It  would  appear  that  when  the 
bugs  effect  lodgment  in  any  one  skin,  they  usually  finish  it 
before  attacking  another,  unless  they  are  in  great  force.  We 
may  consequently,  by  prompt  removal  of  an  infested  specimen, 
save  further  depredations  ;  nevertheless  the  rest  become  "sus- 
picious," and  the  whole  drawer  or  box  should  at  any  rate  be 
quarantined,  if  not  submitted  to  any  of  the  processes  described 
beyond.  Our  lines  of  defence  are  several.  We  may  mechan- 
icalhr  oppose  entrance  of  the  enemy ;  we  may  meet  him  with 
abhorrent  odors  that  drive  him  off,  sicken  or  kill  him,  and 
finally  we  may  cook  him  to  death.  I  will  notice  these  methods 
successively,  taking  occasion  to  describe  a  cabinet  under  head 
of  the  first. 

§56.  CASES  FOR  STORAGE  OR  TRANSPORTATION  should  be  rather 
small,  for  several  reasons.  They  are  easier  to  handle  and 
pack.  There  are  fewer  birds  pressing  each  other.  Particular 
specimens  are  more  readily  reached.  Bugs  must  effect  just  so 
many  more  separate  entrances  to  infest  the  whole.  Small  lids 
are  more  readily  fitted  tight.  For  the  ordinary  run  of  small 
birds  I  should  not  desire  a  box  over  18  X  18  X  18,  and  should 
prefer  a  smaller  one ;  for  large  birds,  a  box  just  long  enough 
for  the  biggest  specimen,  and  of  other  proportions  to  corres- 
pond fairly,  is  most  eligible.  Whatever  the  dimensions,  a  proper 
box  presupposes  perfect  jointing ;  but  if*  any  suspicion  be  en- 
tertained on  this  score,  stout  paper  should  be  pasted  along 
all  the  edges,  both  inside  and  out.  We  have  practically  to  do 
with  the  lid  only.  If  the  lot  is  likely  to  remain  long  untouched, 


108  CARE    OF   A    COLLECTION. 

the  cover  may  be  screwed  very  close  and  the  crack  pasted  like 
the  others.  Under  other  and  usual  circumstances  the  lid  may 
be  provided  with  a  metal  boss  fitting  a  groove  lined  with  India 
rubber  or  filled  with  wax.  An  excellent  case  may  be  made  of 
tin  with  the  lids  secured  in  this  manner,  and  further  fortified 
with  a  wooden  casing.  Birdskins  entirely  free  from  insects  or 
their  eggs,  encased  in  some  such  secure  manner,  will  remain  in- 
tact indefinitely  ;  but  there  is  misery  in  store  if  any  bugs  or  nits 
be  put  away  with  them.  When  many  boxes  are  stored  or 
forwarded,  much  time  and  inconvenience  may  be  saved  by 
labelling  each  with  a  summary  of  contents,  or  with  a  number 
referring  to  an  inventory. 

§57.  CABINETS.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  most  collections  are 
kept  readily  accessible  for  examination,  displa}^  or  other  im- 
mediate use,  and  this  precludes  any  disposition  of  them  in 
"hermetical"  cases.  The  most  we  can  do  is  to  secure  tight 
fitting  of  movable  woodwork.  The  "cabinet"  is  most  eligible 
for  private  collections.  This  is,  in  effect,  simply  a  bureau,  or 
chest  of  drawers,  protected  with  folding  doors,  or  a  front  that 
may  be  detached,  either  of  plain  wood  or  sashing  for  panes  of 
glass.  It  is  simply  astonishing  how  many  birdskins  of  average 
size  can  be  accommodated  in  a  cabinet  that  makes  no  incon- 
venient piece  of  furniture  for  an  ordinary  room.  A  cabinet 
may  of  course  be  of  any  desired  size,  shape  and  style.  In  gen- 
eral it  will  be  better  to  put  money  into  excellence  of  fitting 
rather  than  elegance  of  finish :  the  handsomest  front  does  not 
compensate  for  a  crack  in  the  back  or  for  a  drawer  that  hitches. 
There  should  not  be  the  slightest  flaw  in  the  exterior,  and  doors 
should  fit  so  tightly  that  a  puff  of  air  may  be  felt  on  closing 
them.  The  greatest  desideratum  of  the  interior  work,  next 
after  close  fitting  yet  smooth  running  of  the  drawers,  is  econ- 
omy of  space.  This, is  secured  by  making  the  drawers  as  thin 
as  is  consistent  with  stabilit}' ;  by  having  them  slide  by  a  boss 
at  each  end  fitting  a  groove  in  the  side  wall,  instead  of  resting 
on  horizontal  partitions  ;  and  by  hinged  countersunk  handles 
instead  of  knobs.  I  do  not  recommend,  except  for  a  suite  of 


CABINET   FOR    SKINS.  109 

the  smallest  birds,  a  multiplicity  of  shallow  drawers,  accom- 
modating each  one  layer  of  specimens ;  it  is  better  to  have 
fewer  deeper  drawers,  into  which  light  shallow  movable  trays 
are  fitted.  These  trays  never  need  be  of  stuff  over  one-eighth 
or  one-fourth  thick,  and  may  have  stiff  pasteboard  bottoms 
glued  or  tacked  on.  They  may  vary  from  one-half  inch  to  two 
inches  in  depth,  but  this  dimension  should  always  be  some 
factor  of  the  depth  of  the  drawer,  so  that  a  certain  number  of 
trays  may  exactly  fill  it.  They  should  be  just  as  long  as  one 
transverse  dimension  of  the  drawer,  and  rather  narrow,  so  that 
two  or  more  are  set  side  by  side.  Finally,  though  the}'  may 
be  of  different  depths,  they  should  be  of  the  same  length  and 
breadth,  so  as  to  be  interchangeable.  They  may  simply  rest 
on  top  of  each  other,  or  slide  on  separate  projections  inside  the 
drawer.  Such  trays  are  extremely  handy  for  holding  partic- 
ular sets  of  species,  to  be  carried  to  the  study  table  without 
disturbing  the  rest  of  the  collection. 

If  a  collection  be  so  extensive  that  any  particular  specimen 
may  not  be  readily  hunted  up  it  will  be  found  convenient  to 
have  the  drawers  themselves  labelled  with  the  name  of  the 
group  within.  A  collection  should  always  be  methodically 
arranged  —  preferably  according  to  some  approved  or  sup- 
posed natural  classification  of  birds ;  this  is  also  the  readiest 
mode,  since,  with  some  conspicuous  exceptions  birds  of  the 
same  natural  group  are  approximately  of  the  same  size.  If  I 
were  desired  to  suggest  proportions  for  a  private  cabinet  of 
most  general  eligibility,  I  should  say  four  feet  high,  by  three 
feet  wide,  by  two  feet  deep,  in  the  clear ;  this  makes  a  portly 
yet  not  unwieldy  looking  object.  It  is  wide  enough  for  fold- 
ing doors,  to  be  secured  by  bolts  at  top  and  bottom,  and  lock ; 
not  so  high  that  the  top  drawer  is  not  readily  inspected  ;  and 
of  proportionate  depth.  Such  a  case  will  take  seven  drawers 
six  inches  deep  either  of  the  full  width,  or  in  two  series  with  a 
median  partition ;  these  drawers  will  hold  anything  up  to  an 
eagle  or  crane.  A  part  of  them  at  least  should  have  a  full 
complement  of  such  trays  as  I  have  described  —  say  three  or 
four  tiers  of  the  shallower  trays,  three  trays  to  a  tier,  each 


110  CARE    OF   A    COLLECTION. 

about  two  feet  long  by  about  a  foot  wide ;  and  one  or  two 
tiers  of  deeper  trays.  There  are  about  forty  thousand  cubic 
inches  in  such  a  cabinet,  of  which  perhaps  one- tenth  is  occu- 
pied with  woodwork;  and  I  should  judge  that  some  eight  or 
ten  thousand  hummingbirds,  for  instance  (and  other  birds  in 
proportion),  could  be  accommodated  in  layers,  a  single  bird 
deep.  Be  this  as  it  may,  I  have  kept  all  the  birds,  excepting  a 
few  of  the  largest,  that  I  ever  cared  to  have  at  my  elbojv  at 
any  one  time,  in  one  cabinet  of  such  dimensions. 

§58.  To  DESTROY  BDGS.  In  our  present  case  prevention 
is  not  the  best  remedy,  simply  because  it  is  not  always  practi- 
cable ;  in  spite  of  all  mechanical  precautions  the  bugs  will  get 
in.  We  have,  therefore,  to  see  what  will  destroy  them,  or  at 
least  stop  their  ravages.  It  is  a  general  rule  that  any  pun- 
gent aromatic  odor  is  obnoxious  to  them,  and  that  any  veiy 
'  light  powdery  substance  restrains  their  movements  by  getting 
into  the  joints  and  breathing  pores.  Both  these  qualities  are 
secured  in  the  ordinary  "  insect  powder,"  to  be  had  of  any  lead- 
ing druggist.  It  should  be  lavishly  strewn  on  and  among  the 
skins,  and  laid  in  the  corners  of  the  drawers  and  trays.  Thus 
used  it  proves  highty  effective,  and  is  on  the  whole  the  most 
eligible  substance  to  use  when  a  collection  is  being  constantly 
handled.  Camphor  is  a  valuable  agent.  Small  fragments  may 
be  strewn  about  the  drawers,  or  a  lump  pinned  in  mosquito 
netting  in  a  corner.  Benzine  is  also  very  useful.  A  small 
saucer  full  may  be  kept  evaporating,  or  the  liquid  may  be 
sprinkled — even  poured — directly  over  the  skins  ;  it  is  very  vol- 
atile and  leaves  little  or  no  stain.  It  is,  however,  obviously 
ineligible  when  a  collection  is  in  constant  use.  My  friend  Mr. 
Allen  informs  me  he  has  used  sulphide  of  carbon  with  great 
success.  The  objection  to  this  agent  is,  that  it  is  a  stinking 
poison ;  should  be  used  in  the  open  air,  to  escape  the  ineffa- 
bly disgusting  and  deleterious  odors,  and  its  employ  is  prob- 
ably restricted  to  cases  for  storage.  When  the  bill  or  feet 
show  they  are  attacked,  further  depredation  may  be  prevented 
by  pencilling  with  a  strong  solution  of  corrosive  Sublimate  ;  a 


DESTROYING   BUGS  —  CONCLUDING   ITEMS.  Ill 

weaker  solution,  one  that  leaves  no  white  film,  on  drying,  on  a 
black  feather,  may  even  be  brushed  over  the  whole  plumage  in 
certain  cases.  But  remember  that  this  is  a  deadly  poison  and 
must  be  used  with  care.  Specimens  may  be  buried  in  coarse 
refuse  tobacco  leaves.  One  or  another  of  these  lines  of  de- 
fence will  commonly  prove  successful  in  destroying  or  driving 
off  mature  insects,  and  even  in  stopping  the  ravages  of  the 
larvae ;  but  I  doubt  that  any  such  means  will  kill  the  "nits." 
With  these  we  must  deal  otherwise ;  and  their  destruction  no 
less  than  that  of  their  parents  is  assured,  if  we  subject  them  to  a 
high  temperature.  Baking  birdskins  is  really  the  only  process 
that  can  make  us  feel  perfectly  safe.  Infected  specimens,  along 
with  suspected  ones,  should  be  subjected  to  a  dry  heat,  from 
212°  F.  up  to  any  degree  short  of  singeing  the  plumage.  This 
is  readily  done  by  putting  the  birds  in  a  wooden  tray  in  any 
oven — they  must  however  be  watched,  unless  you  have  special 
contrivances  for  regulating  the  temperature.  How  long  a  time 
is  required  is  probably  not  ascertained  with  precision ;  it  will 
be  well  to  bake  for  several  hours.  When  the  beetles  and  larvae 
are  found  completely  parched,  it  may  be  confidently  believed 
that  the  unseen  eggs  are  out  of  the  hatching  way  forever.  The 
specimens  may  be  immediately  replaced  in  the  cabinet,  after 
flipping  or  brushing  off  loosened  feathers. 

§59.  Two  ITEMS.  One  is,  that  arsenic  helps  to  keep  out 
the  bugs,  besides  preventing  decay  —  a  fact  that  should  never 
be  forgotten,  and  that  should  give  sharper  edge  to  my  advice 
respecting  lavish  use  of  the  substance  at  the  outset.  If  it  be 
true,  as  some  state,  that  bugs  can  eat  arsenic  without  dying,  it 
is  also  true,  that  they  do  not  relish  it ;  and  in  entering  a  case 
of  skins  they  will  burrow  by  preference  in  those  holding  the 
least  of  it.  This  fact  is  continually  exhibited  in  large  collec- 
tions, where,  if  two  birds  be  side  by  side,  one  being  duly  ar- 
senicized  and  the  other  not  so,  one  will  be  taken  and  the  other 
left.  My  second  item,  with  its  proper  deduction,  will  form,  I 
think,  a  fitting  conclusion  to  this  treatise.  It  is  a  fact  in  the 
natural  history  of  these  our  pests,  that  they  are  fond  of  peace 


112  CARE    OF    A    COLLECTION. 

and  quiet  —  they  do  not  like  to  be  disturbed  at  their  meals, 
nor  even  between  times.  So  it  results,  that  they  rarely  effect 
permanent  lodgment  in  a  collection  that  is  being  constantly 
handled  —  though  the  doors  stand  open  for  hours  daily,  they 
will  seek  elsewhere.  As  a  consequence,  the  degree  of  our 
diligence  in  studying  birdskins  is  likety  to  become  the  measure 
of  our  success  in  preserving  them.  I  once  read  a  work,  by  an 
eminent  and  learned  divine,  on  the  u  Moral  Uses  of  Dark 
Things,"  under  which  head  the  author  included  everything 
from  earthquakes  to  mosquitoes.  If  there  be  a  moral  use  in 
the  "dark  thing"  that  museum  pests  certainly  are  to  us,  we 
have  it  here.  The  very  bugs  urge  on  our  work. 


APPENDIX 


MANUAL  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS. 

As  the  author's  absence  on  a  collecting  tour  during  the  printing  of 
this  volume  rendered  revision  of  proof-sheets  impracticable,  some 
notes  since  received  from  him  are  appended.  A  few  self-correcting 
typographical  errors,  notably  in  punctuation,  are  passed  over. 

The  comparatively  few  technical  terms  used  in  the  treatise  for  the 
parts  and  organs  of  birds  are  defined  and  explained  in  the  "Key  to 
North  American  Birds,"  obviating  the  necessity  of  a  separate  glossary. 
Familiarity  with  the  "Topography"  of  birds  will  facilitate  taxidermy; 
the  subject  is  treated  at  length  in  the  work  just  mentioned.  (F.  W.  P.) 


Page  7.  Further  experience  changes  ray  former  preference  for  metal 
instead  of  paper  cartridges  for  breech-loaders.  The  latter  may  of 
course  be  loaded  according  to  circumstances  with  the  same  facility, 
and  even  reloaded  if  desired.  It  is  a  good  deal  of  trouble  to  take 
care  of  the  metal  shells,  to  prevent  loss,  keep  them  clean,  and  avoid 
bending  or  indenting;  while  there  is  often  a  practical  difficulty  in  re- 
capping— at  least  with  the  common  styles  that  take  a  special  primer. 
Those  fitted  with  a  screw  top  holding  a  nipple  for  ordinary  caps  are 
expensive.  Paper  cartridges  come  already  capped,  so  that  this  bother 
is  avoided,  as  it  is  not  ordinarily  worth  while  to  reload  them.  They 
are  made  of  different  colors,  distinguishing  various  sizes  of  shot  used 
MAXUAL.  8  (113) 


114  APPENDIX    TO   MANUAL. 

without  employ  of  colored  wads  as  suggested  in  the  text.  They  may 
be  taken  into  the  field  empty,  and  loaded  on  occasion  to  suit ;  but  it  is 
better  to  pay  a  trifle  extra  to  have  them  loaded  at  the  shop.  In  such 
case,  about  four-fifths  of  the  stock  should  contain  mustard-seed,  nearly 
all  the  rest  about  No.  7,  a  very  few  being  reserved  for  about  No.  4. 
Cost  of  ammunition  is  hardly  appreciably  increased ;  its  weight  is  put 
in  the  most  conveniently  portable  shape;  the  whole  apparatus  for 
carrying  it,  and  loading  the  shells,  is  dispensed  with;  much  time  is 
saved,  the  entire  drudgery  (excepting  gun-cleaning)  of  collecting 
being  avoided.  I  was  prepared  in  this  way  during  the  past  summer 
for  the  heaviest  work  I  have  yet  succeeded  in  accomplishing  during 
the  same  length  of  time.  In  June,  when  birds  were  plentiful,  I  easily 
averaged  fifteen  skins  a  day,  and  occasionally  made  twice  as  many. 
As  items  serving  to  base  calculations,  I  may  mention  that  in  four 
months  I  used  about  two  thousand  cartridges,  loaded,  at  $42  per  M., 
with  seven-eighths  of  an  ounce  of  shot  and  two  and  three-fourths 
drachms  of  powder ;  only  about  three  hundred  were  charged  with  shot 
larger  than  mustard-seed.  In  estimating  the  size  of  a  collection  that 
may  result  from  use  of  a  given  number  of  cartridges,  it  may  not  be 
safe  for  even  a  good  shot  to  count  on  much  more  than  half  as  many 
specimens  as  cartridges.  The  number  is  practically  reduced  by  the 
following  steps  :— Cartridges  lost  or  damaged,  or  originally  defective; 
shots  missed :  birds  killed  or  wounded,  not  recovered ;  specimens 
secured  unfit  for  preservation,  or  not  preserved  for  any  reason ;  speci- 
imens  accidental!}'  spoilt  in  stuffing,  or  subsequently  damaged  so  as 
to  be  not  worth  keeping;  and  finally,  use  of  cartridges  to  supply  the 
table.  I  will  add,  that  my  preference  for  central-fire  cartridges  con- 
tinues. 

Page  10,  line  7  from  bottom,  for  where  read  when. 

*«  134  "a«  half-cock."  Some  guns  are  now  fitted  with  a  "re- 
bounding" lock,  as  it  is  called;  an  arrangement  by  which  the  hammer 
flies  back  to  half-cock  as  soon  as  it  has  delivered  the  blow.  This 
device  enhances  safety,  and  is  particularly  eligible  for  breech-loaders, 
since  the  gun  may  at  once  be  broken  down,  reloaded  and  relocked, 
without  fingering  the  hammer. 

Page  28;  rarity  of  birds.  In  striking  illustration  of  the  text  may  be 
cited  the  cases  of  Baird's  Bunting  and  the  Missouri  Skylark,  both 
birds  which  remained  for  many  years  among  our  special  desiderata, 
but  which  are  two  of  the  most  abundant  and  characteristic  species  of 
Northern  Dakota,  where  I  lately  took  as  many  of  each  as  I  wanted. 
(See  Am.  Nat.  vii,  1873,  p.  695.) 

Page  28.  Treating  of  the  suite  of  each  species  that  it  is  desirable 
to  secure,  I  neglected  to  speak  particularly  of  the  care  that  should  be 
taken  to  procure  full  series  of  females.  Most  miscellaneous  collections 


APPENDIX   TO   MANUAL.  115 

contain  four  or  more  males  to  every  female  —  a  disproportion  that 
should  be  as  far  reduced  as  possible.  The  occasion  of  the  disparity  is 
obvious  —  females  are  usually  more  shy  and  retiring  in  disposition, 
and  consequently  less  frequently  noticed,  while  their  smaller  size,  as 
a  rule,  and  plainer  plumage,  further  favor  their  eluding  observation. 
The  difference  in  coloring  is  greatest  among  those  groups  where  the 
males  are  most  richly  clad,  and  the  shyness  of  the  mother  birds  is 
most  marked  during  the  breeding  season,  just  when  the  males,  full  of 
song  and  in  their  nuptial  attire,  become  most  conspicuous.  It  is  often 
worth  while  to  neglect  the  gay  Benedicts,  to  trace  out  and  secure  the 
plainer  but  not  less  interesting  females.  This  pursuit,  moreover,  often 
leads  to  discovery  of  the  nests  and  eggs  —  an  important  consideration. 
Although  both  sexes  are  generally  found  together  when  breeding,  and 
mixing  indiscriminately  at  other  seasons,  they  often  go  in  separate 
flocks,  and  often  migrate  independently  of  each  other — in  this  case 
the  males  usually  in  advance.  Towards  the  end  of  the  passage  of 
some  warblers,  for  instance,  we  may  get  almost  nothing  but  females, 
all  our  specimens  of  a  few  days  before  having  been  males.  The  not- 
able exceptions  to  the  rule  of  smaller  size  of  the  female  are  among 
rapacious  birds  and  many  waders — though  in  these  last  the  disparity 
is  not  so  marked.  I  do  not  recall  an  instance,  among  American  birds, 
of  the  female  being  more  richly  colored  than  the  male.  When  the 
sexes  are  notably  different  in  adult  life,  the  young  of  both  sexes  resem- 
ble the  adult  female  —  the  young  males  gradually  assuming  their  dis- 
tinctive characters.  When  the  adults  of  both  sexes  are  alike,  the 
young  commonly  differ  from  them. 

In  the  same  connection  I  wish  to  urge  a  point,  the  importance  of 
which  is  often  overlooked ;  it  is  our  practical  interpretation  of  the 
adage,  ua  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush."  Always  keep 
the  first  specimen  you  secure  of  a  species  till  you  get  another;  no 
matter  how  common  the  species,  how  poor  the  specimen,  or  how  cer- 
tain you  may  feel  of  getting  other  better  ones,  keep  it.  Your  most 
reasonable  calculations  may  come  to  naught,  from  a  variety  of  cir- 
cumstances, and  any  specimen  is  better  than  no  specimen,  on  general 
principles.  And  in  general  do  not,  if  you  can  help  it,  discard  any 
specimen  in  the  field.  No  tyro  can  tell  what  will  prove  valuable  and 
what  not ;  while  even  the  expert  may  regret  to  find  that  a  point  comes 
up  which  a  specimen  he  injudiciously  discarded  might  have -determined. 
Let  a  collection  be  "weeded  out,"  if  at  all,  only  after  deliberate  and 
mature  examination,  when  the  scientific  results  it  affords  have  been 
elaborated  by  a  competent  ornithologist;  and  even  then,  the  refuse 
(with  certain  limitations)  had  better  be  put  where  it  will  do  some 
good,  than  be  destroyed  utterly.  For  instance,  I  myself  once  valued, 
and  used,  some  Smithsonian  "  sweepings";  and  I  know  very  well  what 


116  APPENDIX   TO    MANUAL. 

to  do  with  specimens,  now,  to  which  I  would  not  give  houseroom  in 
my  own  cabinet.     If  forced  to  reduce  bulk,  owing  to  limited  facilities 
for  transportation  in  the  field  (as  too  often  happens),  throw  away  ac- 
cording to  size,  other  things  being  equal.     Given  only  so  many  cubic 
inches  or  feet,  eliminate  the  few  large  birds,  which  take  up  the  space 
that  would  contain  fifty  or  a  hundred  different  little  ones.    If  you  have 
a  fine  large  bald  eagle  or  pelican,  for  instance,  throw  it  away  first,  and 
follow  it  with  your  ducks,  geese,  etc.    In  this  way,  the  bulk  of  a  large 
miscellaneous  collection  may  be  reduced  one-half,  perhaps,  with  very 
little  depreciation  of  its  actual  value.     The  same  principle  may  be  ex- 
tended to  other  collections  in  natural  history  (excepting fossils,  which 
are  always  weighty,  if  not  also  bulky)  ;  very  few  bird-skins,  indeed, 
being  as  valuable  contributions  to  science  as,  for  example,  a  vial  of 
miscellaneous  insects  that  occupies  no  more  room  may  prove  to  be. 
Page  34,  line  7  from  bottom,  for  drawn  read  driven. 
"    41,     "  3,  for  drop  read  drip. 
"    46,     "   15,  for  toed  read  told. 
"    49,  obverse  of  diagram,  for  Butes  read  Buteo. 
"    52,  line  12  from  bottom,  for  answers  read  answering. 
"    50,     "5  from  bottom,  omit  is  before  from. 
"    54,     "  8,  for  only  read  duly. 

"    66,     "   17,  for  instruments  confine  read  instrument  confines. 
"    68,     "   6  of  footnote,  for  drawing  read  driving. 
"    69,     "   10  from  bottom,  omit  for  before  one. 
"    71,     "   4  from  bottom,  for  internally  read  intimately. 
"    75.   Mentioning  the  thin-skinned  cardinal  grosbeak,  I   over- 
looked the  night-hawks  and  whippoorwills  ( Caprimulgidce) ,  in  which 
the  skin  is  still  more  tender  and  liable  to  be  torn. 
Page  87,  line  15  from  bottom,  for  only  read  duly. 
"    91,     "   12,  after  crossbar  insert  on  a. 

"  94.  Testes  vary  more  in  shape  and  color  than  may  be  inferred 
from  the  text,  being  sometimes  rather  linear  or  oblong,  and  grayish, 
livid  bluish,  or  even  reddish.  I  lately  found,  in  a  bay- winged  bunting, 
only  one  testis,  twice  as  large  as  natural  to  compensate  for  want  of 
the  other. 

Page  94,  line  3,  for  bowels  read  bowel. 
"     101,  "   7,  first  word,  for  essential  read  stationary. 
"     108,  "  5,  for  lids  read  lid. 


CHECK  LIST 


OP 


NORTH     AMERICAN    BIRDS, 


CHECK  LIST  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  BIRDS. 


NOTE.  —  The  species  are  numbered  consecutively  from  1  to  635. 
Stragglers  have  the  number  in  brackets.  Varieties  bear  the  number 
of  the  species  to  which  they  belong,  with  a,  6,  cr,  etc.,  unless  a  variety 
is  our  only  representative  of  the  species,  when  it  is  separately  enu- 
merated. Obscure  or  doubtful  species  are  marked  with  a  note  of 
interrogation  after  the  number.  Each  species  is  followed  by  the 
original  describer's  name;  when  this  is  not  also  the  authority  for 
the  nomenclature  adopted  the  name  of  such  authority  is  added,  the 
former  being  retained  in  parenthesis.  A  similar  practice  is  observed 
in  the  cases  of  varieties ;  when,  as  in  most  instances,  they  were  origi- 
nally described  as  species  they  are  followed  by  the  authority  for  their 
reduction  to  varieties,  as  well  as  by  the  name  of  the  describer;  the 
latter  in  parenthesis. 

The  List  contains  a  very  few  species  discovered  since  the  "Key" 
was  printed;  otherwise,  it  is  an  exact  reflection  of  that  work,  the 
arrangement  and  nomenclature  being  identical.  The  numbers  of  the 
genera  as  used  in  the  Key  are  given  in  the  head  lines  of  the  List  in 
order  to  facilitate  reference. 

Authors  are  at  variance  in  the  formation  of  the  genitive  of  Latinized 
proper  names ;  in  the  absence  of  any  universally  observed  rule,  euphony 
may  perhaps  be  advantageously  consulted.  In  the  Key,  the  i  was 
doubled  in  all  cases  of  words  ending  in  a  consonant,  the  nominative 
being  considered  to  end  in  -ius ;  this  practice  is  preferably  applicable 
to  monosyllables,  as  Bairdii,  and  polysyllables,  as  Audubonii.  But  it 
is  necessary  to  use  single  i  in  words  ending  in  r,  as  Cooperi,  and  best 
to  do  so  in  most  cases  of  dissyllables,  as  Wilsoni,  Cassini,  Swainsoni. 
The  same  is  the  case  with  all  words  ending  in  a  vowel. 

The  following  are  the  abbreviations  used  for  authors'  names  occur- 
ring most  frequently ;  others  are  for  the  most  part  written  in  fall : — 
All,  Allen;  And.,  Audubon;  Bd.,  Baird;  Bodd.,  Boddaert;  Bp.,  Bona- 
parte; Cab.,  Cabanis;  Cass.,  Cassin;  Cys.,Coues;  Gamb.,  Gambel;  Gm., 
Gmelin;  Gr.t  Gray;  L. ,  Linnaeus ;  Lafr.,  Lafresnaye;  Lath.,  Latham; 
Laicr.,  Lawrence;  Licht.,  Lichtenstein ;  Nutt.,  Nuttall;  Belch.,  Reich- 
enbach;  Ridg.,  Eidgway;  Scl.,  Sclater;  Steph.,  Stephens;  Sw.,  Swain- 
son;  Temm.,  Temminck;.  Towns.,  Townsend;  F.,  Vieillot;  Viff., 
Vigors;  Wagl.,  Wagler;  Wils.,  Wilson. 


GEN.    1-3    OF   KEY. 

^  1.  TUBDUS  MIGBATOBIUS  L. 
Robin. 

la.  TUBDUS  MIGBATOBIUS  L., 
var.  CONFINIS  (Bd.)  Cs. 
Robin. 


2.  TUBDUS  NJBVIUS  GM. 

Varied  Thrush. 

3.  TUBDUS  MUSTELINUS  GM. 

Wood  Thrush. 

4.  TUBDUS  PALLASI  CAB. 

Hermit  Thrush. 

4a.   TUBDUS  PALLASI  CAB., 
var.  AUDUBONH  (Bd.)  Cs. 
Andubon's  Thrush. 

4b.   TUBDUS  PALLASI  CAB., 
var.  NANUS  (Aud.)   Cs. 
Dwarf  Thrush. 

5.  TUBDUS  SWAINSONI  CAB. 

Olive-hacked  Thrush. 

5a.   TUBDUS  SWAINSONI  CAB., 
var.  ALICLE  (Bd.)   Cs. 
Alice's  Thrush. 

5b.  TUBDUS  SWAINSOISTI  CAB., 
var.  USTULATUS  (Nutt.)  Cs. 
Oregon  Thrush. 

6.  TUBDUS  FUSCESCENS  STEPH. 

Thrush.   Veery 


7.  OBEOSCOPTES  MONTANUS  (TOWNS.)  BD, 

Mountain  Mocking-bird. 

8.  MIMUS  POLYGLOTTUS  (L.)  BOIE. 

blocking-bird. 


GEN.    3-6    OF   KEY. 

~*  9.  MIMUS  CAROLIN-ENSIS  (L.)  GR. 
Catbird. 

-*  10.  EARPORHYNCHUS  RUPTJS  (L.)  CAB. 
Brown  Thrush.    Thrasher. 

lOa.  HARPORHYNCHUS  RTTFTTS  (L.)  CAB., 
var.  LONGIROSTRIS  (Lafr.)  Cs. 
Thrush. 


11.  HARPORHYNCHTJS  CURVIROSTRIS  (Sw.)  CAB., 

var.  PALMERI  Kidg. 
Curve-billed  Thrush. 

llbis.*  HARPORHYNCHTJS  BENDIREI  Cs. 
Bendire's  Thrush. 

12.  HARPORHYNCHTJS  CINERETJS  BD. 

Cinereous  Thrush. 

13.  HARPORHYNCHTJS  REDIV1VUS  (GAMB.)  CAB. 

Sickle-billed  Thrush. 

13a.  HARPORHYNCHITS  RED1V1VUS  (GAMB.)  CAB., 
var.  LECONTEI  (Lawr.)  Cs. 
X^eConte's  Thrush. 

14.  HARPORHYNCHTJS  CRISSALIS  HENRY. 

Red-vented  Thrush. 

[15].   SAXICOLA  CENANTHE  (L.)  BECHSTEIN. 
Stone  Chat. 


-*  16.  SIALIA  STATiIS  (L.)  HALDEMAN. 
Eastern  "Bluebird. 

17.  SIALIA  MEXICANA  Sw. 

Western  Bluebird. 

18.  SIALIA  ARCTICA  Sw. 

Arctic  Bluebird. 


*llbis.    Not  in  the  Key.    See  Am.  Nat.,  Vol.  vii,"p.  330,  1873. 


GEN.    7-13    OF   KEY. 

19.   CINCLUS  MEXICAHTTS  Sw. 
Water  Ouzel.   Dipper. 

[20].  PHYLLOPNEUSTE  BOREALIS  BLASIUS. 
Kennicott's 


21.  REGULUS  CALENDULA  (L.)  LIGHT. 

Ruby-crowned  Kinglet. 

22.  REGULUS  SATRAPA  LIGHT. 
Golden-crested  King-let. 

23.  POLIOPTILA  C-3ERULEA  (L.)  SCL. 

Blue-gray  Gnatcatcher. 

24.  POLIOPTILA  MELANURA  LAWR. 
Black-neaded  Onatcatcner. 

25.  POLIOPTILA  PLUMBEA  BD. 
Plumbeous  Onatcatcner. 

26.  CHAMPA  FASCIATA  GAMB. 
Fasciated  Tit.    O  round 


27.  LOPHOPHANES  BICOLOR  (L.)  BP. 

Tufted  Titmouse. 

28.  LOPHOPHANES  INORNATUS  (GAMB.)  CASS. 

Plain  Titmouse. 

29.  LOPHOPHANES  ATRICRISTATUS  CASS. 

Black-crested  Titmouse. 

30.  LOPHOPHANES  WOLLWEBERI  BP. 

Bridled  Titmouse. 

31.  PARUS  ATRICAPILLUS  L. 
Black-capped  Cltickadee. 

31  a.  PARUS  ATRICAPILLUS  L., 
var.  SEPTENTRIONALIS  (Harris)  All. 
Chickadee. 


GEN.    13-17    OF   KEY.  11 

31b.  PARUS  ATRICAPILIiUS  L., 
var.  CAROLIXENSIS  (Aud.)  Cs. 
Carolina  Chickadee. 

31c.  PARUS  ATRICAPILLUSL., 
var.  OCCIDEXTALIS  (Bd.)  Cs. 
Western  Chickadee. 

32.  PARUS  MONTANUS  GAMB. 

Mountain  Chickadee. 

33.  PARUS  HUDSONICUS  FORSTER. 

HiHlsoiiiaii  Chickadee. 

34.  PARUS  RUFESCENS  TOWNS. 
Chestnut-hacked  Chickadee. 

35.  PSALTRIPARUS  MINIMUS  (TOWNS.)  BP. 

I^east  Titmouse. 

36.  PSALTRIPARUS  PLUMBEUS  BD. 

Plumheous  Titmouse. 

37.  AURIPARUS  FLAVICEPS  (SUXD.)BD. 

ITelloiv-headed  Titmouse. 

38.  SITTA  CAROLINENSIS  GM. 
White-hellied  IVuthatch. 

38a.   SITTA  CAROLINENSIS  GM., 

var.  ACULEATA  (Cass.)  All. 
Slender-hilled  Nuthatch. 

39.  SITTA  CANADENSIS  L. 
Red-hellied  Nuthatch. 

40.  SITTA  PUSILLA  LATH. 
Kronen-headed  Nuthatch. 

41?  SITTA  PYGMJEA  VIG. 
Pygmy  Nuthatch. 

.  42.  CERTHIA  PAMILIARIS  L. 
,  Brown  Creeper. 


GEN.    18-23    OF   KEY.  13 

43.  CAMPYLORHYNCHUS 

BRUNNEICAPILLUS  (LAFR.)  GR. 
Vro  wn-Iieadeil  Creeper-wren. 

44.  CAMPYLORHYNCHUS  AFFLN1S  XANTUS. 

Allied  Creeper-wren. 

45.  SALPINCTES  OBSOLETUS  (SAY)  CAB. 

Rock  "Wren. 

46.  CATHERPES  MEXICA1TCTS  (Sw.)  BD. 

White-throated  Wren. 

47.  THRYOTHORUS  LUDOVICIANUS  (On.)  BP. 

Great  Carolina  Wren. 

47a.  THRYOTHORUS  LUDOVICIA1OTS  (Gn.)  BP., 
var.  BERLANDIERI  (Couch)  Cs. 
JBerlandier's  Wren. 

48.  THRYOTHORUS  BEWICKII  (Auo.)  BP. 

Bewick's  Wren. 

48a.   THRYOTHORUS  BEWICKII  (Auo.)  BP. 
var.  LEUCOGASTER  (Gould)  Bd. 
Wliite-beUied  ^Vreii. 

48b.  THRYOTHORUS  BEWICKII  (AuD.)  BP., 

var.  SPILURUS  (Vig.)  Bd. 
Speckled-tailed  "Wren. 

—  49.  TROGLODYTES  AEDON  V. 

House  Wren. 

49a.  TROGLODYTES  AEDON  V., 

var.  PARKMANNI  (Aud.)  Cs. 
Wrestern  House  Wren. 

—  50.  ANORTHURA  TROGLODYTES  (L.)  Cs., 

var.  HTEMALIS  (Wils.)  Cs. 
W"inter  Wrren. 


GEN.    23-34   OF   KEY.  15 

50a.  ANOBTHTJBA  TBOGLODYTES  (L.)  Cs., 
var.  ALASCENSIS  (Bd.)  Cs. 
Alaskan  Wren. 

«  51.   TELMATODYTES  PALTTSTBIS  (WiLS.)  CAB. 
Long'-billed  Marsh  Wren. 

52.   CISTOTHOBUS  STELLABIS  (LIGHT.)  CAB. 
Short-billed  Marsh  Wren. 

-  53.  EBEMOPHILA  ALPESTBIS  (FORST.)  BODE. 

Horned  !Lark;    Shore  JLark. 

53a.  EBEMOPHIIiA  ALPESTBIS  (FOKST.)  BOIE, 
var.  CHRYSOL^EMA  (Wagl.)  Bd. 
South- we*t«*rn  I,ark. 

54.   BUDYTES  FLAVA  (L.)  Cuv. 
Yellow  Wag-tall. 

-  55.  ANTHTJS  LUDOVICIAJSTTS  (Gxi.)  LIGHT. 

Mro^vii  Lark;  Titlark;  Pipit. 

56.  NEOCOBYS  SPBAGUEI  (Am>.)  SCL. 
Missouri  Skylark. 

-  57.   MNIOTILTA  VABIA  (L.)  V. 

Black-and-white  Creeper. 

-  58.  PABULA  AMEBICAWA  (L.)  BP. 

Blue  yello^v-baeked  "Warbler. 

59.  PBOTONOTABIA   CITB^A   (BODD.)  BD. 

Prothonotary  Wrarbler. 

60.  HELMITHEBUS  VEBMIVOBUS  (GM.)  BP. 

W^orm-eating-  Warbler. 

61.  HELMITHEBUS  SWAINSONI  (AuD.)  BP. 

Swainson's  Wrarbler. 

62.  HELMINTHOPHAGA  PIWTJS  (L.)  BD. 

Blue-wingred  Yellow  ffarbler. 


GEN.  34-35   OF  KEY.  17 

63.  HELMINTHOPHAGA  CHRYSOPTERA  (L.)  BD. 

Blue  Crolden-wing-ed  Wurbl  <>r. 

64.  HELMINTHOPHAGA  BACHMANT  (AuD.)  CAB. 

f  t  a  <-liimtir*  Warbler. 

65.  HELMINTHOPHAGA  LUCUE  COOP. 

I,u<\v  >  Warbler. 

66.  HELMINTHOPHAGA  VIRGINIA  BD. 

Virginia's  Warbler. 

67.  HELMINTHOPHAGA  RUFICAPILLA  (WILS.)  BD. 

Xashville  ^Varbler. 

68.  HELMINTHOPHAGA  CELATA  (SAY)  BD. 

Orangre-cro^^ned  Warbler. 

69.  HELMINTHOPHAGA  PEBEGBINA  (WiLS.)  CAB. 

Tennessee  Warbler. 

-  70.  DENDRCECA  2ESTIVA  (Gn.)  BD.  . 
Summer  Warbler. 

71.  DENDRCECA  VIRENS  (GM.)  BD. 
Black-tnroated  Oreen  Wrarbler. 

72.  DENDRCECA  OCCIDENTAIiIS  (TOWNS.)  BD. 

Western  Warbler. 

73.  DENDRCECA  TOWNSENDII  (Nurr.)  BD. 

To^-nsend's  Wrarbler. 

74.  DENDRCECA  CHRYSOPAREIA  SCL.  ET  SALV. 
.  Oolden-cneeked  Wrarbler. 

75.  DENDRCECA  NIGRESCENS  (TOWNS.)  BD. 

Black-throated  Gray  Warbler. 

76.  DENDRCECA  OZERULESCENS  (L.)  BD. 

Black-throated  Blue  "Warbler. 

77.  DENDRCECA  CJERULEA  (WILS.)  BD. 

Ceerulean  Wrarbler. 

CHECK  LIST  BIRDS.         2 


GEN.   35-36    OF   KEY.  19 

78.  DENDRCECA  CORONATA  (L.)  GR. 
Yellow-rumped  W  arbler  ;  Myrtle  Bird. 

79.  DENDRCECA  AUDUBONII  (TOWNS.)  BD. 

Warbler. 


—  80.   DENDRCECA  BLACKBTTRNL2E  (GM.)  BD. 

U3ac*kbiiriiiaii  Warbler. 

—  81.  DENDRCECA  STRIATA  (FORST.)  BD. 

Black-poll  Warbler. 

82.   DENDRCECA  CASTANEA  (WILS.)  BD. 
Bay-breasted  Warbler. 

-*  83.  DENDRGECA  PENNSYLVANICA  (L.)  BD. 
Cliestnut-sided  M'arbler. 

-   84.   DENDRCECA  MACULOSA  (GM.)  BD. 
lllac*li-aiid-  Vellotv  ^Varbler. 

85.  DENDRCECA  TIGRINA  (GM.)  BD. 

Cape  May  f^arbler. 

86.  DENDRCECA  DISCOLOR  (V.)  BD. 

Prairie  Warbler. 

87.  DENDRCECA  GRACLS!  COUES. 

Orace's 


88.  DENDRCECA  DOMINICA  (L.)  BD. 

Yellow-throated  Wrarbler. 

89.  DENDRCECA  KIRTLANDI  BD. 

Itirtland's  Warbler. 

*  90.  DENDRCECA  PALMARUM  (GM.)  BD. 
Y  ellow  Red-poll  M"  a  rblt»r  . 

91.  DENDRCECA  PINUS  (WILS.)  BD. 

Pine-creeping-  WTarbler. 

92.  SEIURUS  AUROCAPILLUS  (L.)  Sw. 

CrOlden-cro^-ned  Tnrusn. 


GEN.  36-41    OF  KEY.  21 

93.  SEIUBUS  NOVEBOBACENSIS  (G»i.)  NUTT. 

Water  Wag-tail;  Water  Thrush. 

94.  SEIUBUS  LUDOVICIANUS  (V.)  BP. 

Water  Thrush  . 


95.  OPOBOBinS  AGILIS  (WILS.)  BD. 

Connecticut  ff'arbler. 

96.  OPOBOBNIS  POBMOSUS  (Was.)  BD. 

Kentucky  ^Warbler. 

97.  GEOTHLYPIS  TBICHAS  (L.)  CAB. 

Maryland  V«kllo%v-tliroa  t. 

98.  GEOTHLYPIS  PHILADELPHIA  (Was.)  BD. 

Mourning*  ^f^arbler. 

99?*  GEOTHLYPIS  MACGILLIVBAYI  (AuD.)  BD. 


100    ICTEBIA  VIBENS  (L.)  BD. 
Yello^ir-1>reasted  Chat. 

lOOa.  ICTEBIA  VIBENS  (L.)  BD., 
var.  LONGICAUDA  (Lawr.)  Cs. 
$f  -tailed  Cbat. 


101.  MYIODIOCTES  MITBATUS  (Gil.)  AUD. 

Hooded  Fly  catching-  >V  ar  bU'r  . 

102.  MYIODIOCTES  PUSILLUS  (WILS.)  BP 
Careen  Black-capped  Flycatchingr 

103.  MYIODIOCTES  CANADENSIS  (L.)  AUD. 

Canadian  Flycatching-  ^Tarbler. 

—  104.   SETOPHAGA  BUTICILLA  (L.)  Sw. 
Redstart. 

105.   SETOPHAGA  PICTA  Sw. 
Painted  Flycatcher. 

*  This  is  probably  only  a  variety  of  98. 


GEN.   42-50    OF   KEY.  23 

106.   CEBTHIOLA  PLAVEOLA  (L.)  SUND. 
Honey  Creeper. 

-   107.  PYBANGA  BUBBA  (L.)  V. 
Scarlet  Tanag-er. 

108.  PYBANGA  JESTIVA  (L.)  V. 

Summer  Bedhird. 

108a.  PYBANGA  JESTIVA  (L.)  V., 

var.  COOPERI  (Ridg.)  Cs. 
Cooper's  Tanag-er. 

109.  PYBANGA  HEPATICA  Sw. 

Hepatic  Tanagrer. 

110.  PYBANGA  LUDOVICIANA  (WiLS.)  BP. 

Louisiana  Tanag*er. 

.  —   111.  HIBUNDO  HOBBEOBUM  BARTON. 
Barn  Swallow. 

—  112.   TACHYCINETA  BICOLOB  (V.)  Cs. 

ITltite-bellied  Swallow. 

113.   TACHYCINETA  THALASSINA  (Sw.)  CAB. 
Violet-grreen  Swalloir. 

»-    1U.   PETBOCHELIDON  LUNIPBONS  (SAY)  CAB. 
Cliff  * %va  1  low  ;  ISave  swallow. 

—  115.    COTYLE  BIPABIA  (L.)  BOIE. 

Bank  Swallow ;  Sand  Martini 

116.   STELGIDOPTEBYX  SEBBIPENNIS  (Ain>.)  BD. 
Itoug-n-wing-ed  ^ wa 1 1<» w . 

•*•   117.  PBOGNE  PUBPUBEA  (L.)  BOIE. 
Purple  Martin. 

118.  AMPELIS  GABBULUS  L. 
Bohemian  Waxwing*. 

~*   119.  AMPELIS  CEDBOBUM  (V.)  BD. 
Cedar  Bird;  Cherry  Bird. 


GEN.   51-53   OF   KEY.  25 

120.  PHJENOPEPLA  NITENS  (Sw.)  SCL. 

Black  Ptilogronys. 

121.  MYIADESTES  TOWNSENDII  (Auo.)  CAB. 

T<>*vii*»«'iicl'*  JM>  catching-  Thrush. 

122.  VIBEO  OLIVACEUS  (L.)  V. 

Red-eyed  Vireo. 

123.  VIREO  ALTILOQUTJS  (V.)  GRV 

var.  BARBATULUS  (Cab.)  Cs. 
Black-whiskered  Vireo. 

124.  VIBEO  PHILADELPHICUS  CASS. 

Brotherly-love  Vireo. 

125.  VIREO  GILVUS  (V.)  BP. 

Warbling-  Vireo. 

125a.  VIREO  GILVTJS  (V.)  BP. 

var.  SWAINSONI  (Bd.)  Cs. 
Western  Warbling:  Vireo. 

126.  VIREO  FLA VTPRONS  V. 
Yellow-throated  Vireo. 

127.  VIREO  SOLITARIUS  (Was.)  V. 
Blue-headed  Vireo ;  Solitary  Vireo. 

127a.  VIREO  SOLITARIUS  V., 
var.  PLUMBEUS  (Cs.)  All. 
Plumbeous  Vireo. 

128?  VIREO  VICINIOR  COUKS. 
Gray  Vireo. 

129.  VIREO  NOVEBORACENSIS  (GM.)  BP. 
White-eyed  Vireo. 

130?  VIREO  HTJTTONT  CASS. 
11  utton >  Vireo. 


GEN.    53-58   OF  KEY.  27 


131.  VIREO  BELLII  AUD. 

Bell's  Vireo. 

132.  VIREO  PUSILIiUS  COUES. 

!Least  Tireo. 

133.  VIREO  ATRICAPILLUS  WOODH. 

JBlack-headed  Tireo. 

134.  COLLURIO  BOREALIS  (V.)  BD. 
Great  Northern  Shrike;  Butcherbird. 

135.  COLLURIO  LUDOVICIANUS  (L.)  BD. 

XiOgrgrerliead  Shrike. 

135a.   COLLURIO  LUDOVICIANUS  (L.)  BD., 
var.  EXCUBITOROIDES  (Sw.)  Cs. 


136.  HESPERIPHONA  VESPERTINA  (Coop.)  BP. 
£veningr  Grosbeak. 

-  137.  PINICOLA  ENUCLEATOR  (L.)  V. 
Pine  Grosbeak. 

[138.]?  PYRRHULA  CASSINI  (BD.)  TRISTR. 
Cassin's  Bullfinch. 

^  139.   CARPODACUS  PURPUREUS  (Gif.)  GR. 
Purple  riiu'ii. 

HO.   CARPODACUS  CASSINI  BD. 
Cassin's  Purple  Finch. 

HI.   CARPODACUS  PRONTALIS  (SAY)  GR. 
Crimson-fronted  Finch;  House  Finch. 

141a.*  CARPODACUS  PRONTALIS  (SAY)  CAB., 
var.  HJEMORRHOUS  (Wagl.)  Ridg. 
Mexican  Purple  Finch. 

*Not  in  the  Key.    See  Ridgway,  Am.  Jour.  Sci.  Art,  v,  p.  39. 


GEN.    59-62   OF  KEY. 

142.  LOXIA  LEUCOPTERA  (Was.). 
White-winded  Crossbill. 

14&   LOXIA  CURVIROSTRA  L., 
var.  AMERICANA  (Wils.)  Cs. 
Common  Crossbill. 

H3a.  LOXIA  CURVIROSTRA  L,, 

var.  MEXICANA  (Strickl.)  Cs. 
rarg-e-billed  Crossbill. 

144.  LEUCOSTICTE  TEPHROCOTIS  Sw. 

Gray-crowned  Finch. 

144a.  LEUCOSTICTE  TEPHROCOTIS  Sw., 
var.  GRISEINUCHA  (Brandt)  Cs. 
Gray-eared  Finch. 

145.  LEUCOSTICTE  ARCTOA  (PALL.)  BP. 

Siberian  Finch. 

146.  J3GIOTHUS  LINARIA  (L.)  CAB. 

Red-poll  linnet . 

146a.  JEGIOTHUS  LINARIA  (L.)  CAB. 

var.  FUSCESCENS  Cs. 
Dusky  Red-poll. 

146b.  JEGIOTHUS  LINARIA  (L.)  CAB. 

var.  EXILIPES  Cs. 
American  Mealy  Red-poll. 

[147.]   LINOTA  PLAVIROSTRIS  (L.)  BP. 
var.  BREWSTERI  (Ridg.)  Cs. 
Rrewster's  I^innet. 

148.  CHRYSOMITRIS  PINUS  (WiLS.)  BP. 

Pine  linnet. 

149.  CHRYSOMITRIS  TRISTIS  (L.)  BP. 
American  Goldfinch;  Yellowbird. 


GEN.    62-65    OF   KEY.  31 

150.   CHRYSOMITRIS  LAWRENCEI  (CASS.)  BP. 

Goldfinch. 


151.  CHRYSOMITRIS  PSALTRIA  (SAY)  BP. 

Arkansas  Goldfinch. 

151a.   CHBYSOMITRIS  PSALTRIA  (SAY)  BP., 

var.  ARIZONA  Cs. 
Arizona  Goldfinch. 

151b.   CHRYSOMITRIS  PSALTRIA  (SAY)  BP., 

var.  MEXICANA  (Sw.)  Cs. 
Mexican  Goldfinch. 

152.  PLECTROPHANES  NIVALIS  (L.)  MEYER. 

Snow  Bunting-. 

153.  PLECTROPHANES  LAPPONICUS  (L.)  SELBY. 

I,  a  pi  a  ii  (I  Long-spur. 

154.  PLECTROPHANES  PICTUS  Sw. 

Painted  Lark  Bunting-. 

155.  PLECTROPHANES  ORNATUS  TOWNS. 
Chestnut-colored  Lark  Bunting*. 

156.  PLECTROPHANES  MACCOWNII  LAWR. 

McCown's  Lark  Bunting*. 

157?   CENTRONYX  BAIRDII  (AuD.)  BD. 
Baird'M  Bunting-. 

157bis.*   CENTRONYX  OCHROCEPHALUS  AIKEN. 
Ochreous-headed  Bunting*. 

158.  PASSERCULUS  PRINCEPS  MAYNARD. 

Maynard's  ft  par  row. 

159.  PASSERCULUS  SAVANNA  (WiLS.)  BP. 

Savanna  Sparrow. 

*  Not  in  the  Key.    See  Aiken,  Am.  Nat.,  vii,  237. 


GEN.    65-69    OF   KEY.  33 

159a.   PASSERCULUS  SAVANNA  (WILS.)  BP.,     , 
var.  ANTHINUS  (Bp.)  Cs. 
Titlark  Sparrow. 

159b.  PASSEHCULUS  SAVANNA  (WILS.)  BP., 

var.  SANDVICENSIS  (Gm.)  Cs. 
Northwestern  Sparrow. 

160.  PASSERCULUS  ROSTRATUS  (CASS.)  BD. 

Beaked  Sparrow. 

160a.  PASSERCULUS  ROSTRATUS  (CASS.)  BD., 
var.  GUTTATDS  (LAWR.)  Cs. 
St.  JLucas  Sparrow. 

161.  POOECETES  GRAMINEUS  (GM.)  BD. 
Bay-wingred  Bunting*;  Orass  Fiiirli. 

161a.   POOECETES  GRAMINEUS  (GM.)  BD., 
var.  CONFINIS  Bd. 

Fiiioli. 


162.   COTURNICULUS  PASSERINUS  (WILS.)  BP. 
Yello  w-wing-ed  Sparroir. 

162a.   COTURNICULUS  PASSERINUS  (WILS.)  BP., 

var.  PKRPALLIDUS  Ridg. 
Bleacned  Yello^v-n'ing-ed  Sparrow. 


163.  COTURNICULUS  HENSLOWI  (AUD.)  BP. 

Henslow's  Sparronr. 

164.  COTURNICULUS  LECONTEI  (AUD.)  BP. 


165.  AMMODROMUS  MARITIMUS  (WILS.)  Sw. 

Seaside  Finch. 

166.  AMMODROMUS  CAUDACUTCJS  (GM.)  Sw. 

Sharp-tailed  Finch. 

167.  MELOSPIZA  LINCOLNI  (AUD.)  BD. 

Lincoln's  Finch. 

CHECK  LIST  BIRDS.      3 


GEN.    69-70    OF    KEY.  35 


*•  168.  MELOSPIZA  PALTJSTRIS  (WILS.)  BD. 
Swamp  Sparrow. 

-  169.  MELOSPIZA  MELODIA  (WILS.)  BD. 
Song-  Sparrow. 

169a.   MELOSPIZA  MELODIA  (WILS.)  BD., 

var.  FALL  AX  (Bd.)  Ridg. 
Gray  Song-  Sparrow. 

1691*.   MELOSPIZA  MELODIA  (WILS.)  BD., 

var.  GUTTATA  (Nutt.)  Ridg. 
Cinereous  Song*  Sparrow. 

169c.  MELOSPIZA  MELODIA  (WILS.)  BD., 

var.  RUFINA  (Brandt.)  Ridg. 
Rufous  Song-  Sparrow. 

169d.  MELOSPIZA  MELODIA  (WILS.)  BD., 

var.  HEERMANNI  (Bd.)  Ridg. 
Heermann's  Soiigr  Sparrow. 

169e.   MELOSPIZA  MELODIA  (WILS.)  BD., 

var.  GOULDH  (Bd.)  Ridg. 
Gould's  Song*  Sparrow. 

169f.  MELOSPIZA  MELODIA  (WILS.)  BD., 

var.  iNSiGNis  (Bd.)  Ridg. 
HiM'lioff '*»  Song-  Sparrow. 

170.  PETJCJSA  JESTIVALIS  (LIGHT.)  CAB. 

Bacnman's  Finch . 

170a.   PEUOS1A  ^SSTIVALIS  (LIGHT.)  CAB.,. 
var.  CASSINI  (Woodh.)  All. 
Cassin's  Fincn. 

171.  PETJOZEA  RTJTICEPS  (CASS.)  BD. 

Rufous-crowned  Fincn. 

171bis.*  PETJC.ZEA  CARPALIS  COUES. 
Rufous-¥«Ting-ed  sparrow. 

*Xot  in  the  Key.    See  Am.  Xat.,  vii,  p.  322. 


GEN.    71-74    OF    KEY.  37 


172.  POOSPIZA  BILINEATA  (CASS.)  SOL. 

Black-throated  Finch. 

173.  POOSPIZA  BELLI  (CASS.)  SCL. 

Bell's  Finch. 

174.  JUNCO  HYEMALIS  (L.)  SCL. 

*iio\v1»ir<l. 

175  ?  JUNCO  OREGONUS  (TOWNS.)  SCL. 
Oregron  Snowbird. 

176?  JTHSTCO  CINEREUS  (Sw.)  CAB., 
var.  CANICEPS  (Woodh.)  Cs. 
Cinereous  Snowhird. 

177.  SPIZELLA  MONTI  COL  A  (GM.)  BD. 

Tree  Sparrow. 

178.  SPIZELLA  SOCIALIS  (WILS.)  BP. 

Chipping-  Sparrow. 

178a.   SPIZELLA  SOCIALIS  (WiLS.)  Bp., 

var.  ARIZONA  Cs, 
Arizona  Chipping*  Sparrow. 

179.  SPIZELLA  PUSILLA  (WILS.)  Bp. 

Field  Sparrow. 

180.  SPIZELLA  PALLIDA  (Sw.)  BP. 

Clay-colored  sparrow. 

180a.   SPIZELLA  PALLIDA  (Sw.)  BP., 

var.  BREWERI  (Cass.)  Cs. 
Brewer's  Sparrow. 

181.  SPIZELLA  ATRIGULARIS  (CAB.)  BD. 

Black-chinned  Sparrow. 

182.  ZONOTRICHIA  ALBICOLLIS  (GM.)  BP. 

White-throated  Sparrow. 


GEN.    74-80    OF    KEY.  39 

183.  ZONOTRICHIA  LEUCOPHRYS  (FORST.)  Sw. 

Wfiiite-crowoed  Sparrow. 

183a.  ZONOTRICHIA  LEUCOPHRYS  (FORST.)  Sw., 
var.  GAMBELI  (Nutt.)  All. 
Gambel's  Sparrow. 

184.  ZONOTRICHIA  CORONATA  (PALL.)  BD. 

Oolden-crow~ned  Sparrow. 

185.  ZONOTRICHIA  QTJERTJLA  (NUTT.)  GAME. 

Harris's  Sparrow. 

186.  CHONDESTES  GRAMMACA  (SAY)  BP. 

I,  ark  Fiiaeli. 

[187.]   PASSER  DOMESTICUS  LTNN. 
Mparrow. 


*•  188.   PASSERELLA  ILIACA  (MEKIIEM.)  Sw. 
Fox  Sparrow. 

189.  PASSERELLA  TOWNSENDII  f  AUD.)  NUTT. 

Townsend's  Fox  Sparrow. 

189a.  PASSERELLA  TOWNSENDII  (AUD.)  NUTT., 

var.  SCHISTACEA  (Bd.)  Cs. 
Slate-colored  Fox  Sparrow. 

190.  CALAMOSPIZA  BICOLOR  (Towxs.)  BP. 
l.arli  Hunting-;  >Vliit<k-wiiig*ed  Blackbird 

191.  EUSPIZA  AMERICANA  (G.M.)  BP. 

Ifilacii-tnroated  Bunting*. 

192?  EUSPIZA  TOWNSENDII  (AUD.)  BP. 
Towii!*€»ii€i*j*  Bunting-. 

•-*  193.   GONIAPHEA  LUDOVICIAWA  (L.)  BOWDICH. 

Oro^beak. 


194.   GONIAPHEA  MELAWOCEPHALA  (Sw.)  —  . 
Black-headed  Orosbeak. 


GEN.    80-85    OF   KEY.  41 

195.  GONTAPHEA  CJEBTJLEA  (L.). 

Blue  Grosbeak. 

196.  CYANOSPIZA  CIBIS  (L.)  BD. 
Painted  Fincli:  Nonpareil. 

197.  CYANOSPIZA  VEBSICOLOR  (Bp.)  BD. 

Western  Nonpareil. 

198.  CYANOSPIZA  AMCENA  (SAY)  BD. 

Lazuli  Finch. 

199.  CYANOSPIZA  CYANEA  (L.)  BD. 

Indigro  Bird. 

[200.]   SPERMOPHILA  MORELETII  PUCHERAN. 


[201.]  PHONIPARA  BICOLOB  (L.)  BP. 
Black-faced  Finch. 

202.  PYBBHTJLOXIA  SINUATA  BP, 

Texas  Cardinal. 

203.  CAKDLNALIS  VIRGINIANUS  (BRISSON)  BP. 

Cardinal  Redbird. 

203a.   CABDINALIS  VIRGINIAJHTS  (BRISSON)  BP., 
var.  IGNEDS  (Bd.)  Cs. 
fiery  Redbird. 

204.  PIPILO  EBYTHBOPHTHALMTJS  (L.)  V. 

Townee  Bunting-;  Chewink. 

204a.   PIPILO  EBYTHBOPHTHALMTJS  (L.)  V., 
var.  ALLENI  Cs. 

Townee. 


205.  PIPILO  MACULATUS  Sw., 
var.  OREGONUS  (Bell)  Cs. 
Oregron  Townee. 


GEN.    85-89    OF    KEY.  43 


205a.   PIPILO  MACULATUS  Sw., 
var.  ARCTICUS  (Sw.)  Cs. 
Arctic  Towhee. 

205b.   PIPILO  MACULATUS  Sw., 
var.  MEGALONYX  (Bd.)  Cs. 
Towhee. 


206.  PIPILO  PUSCUS  Sw. 
Brown  Towhee;  Canon  Finch. 

206a.  PIPILO  FUSCUS  Sw., 

lar.  ALBIGULA  (Bd.)  Cs. 
White-throated  Towhee. 

206b.   PIPILO  PUSCUS  Sw., 
var.  CRISSALIS  (Vig.)  Cs. 
Crissal  Towhee. 

207.  PIPILO  ABERTIBD. 

Abert's  Towhee. 

208.  PIPILO  CHLOBUBUS  (TOWNS.)  BD. 

Green-tailed  Towhee. 

209.  EMBEBNAGBA  BUPIVIBGATA  LAWR. 

Green  Finch. 

210.  DOLICHONYX  OBYZIVOBUS  (L.)  Sw. 

Bobolink;  Reedhird;  Ricehird. 

211.*  MOLOTHBUS  PECOBIS  (GM.)  Sw. 
Cowhird. 

211a.   MOLOTHBUS  PECOBIS  (GM.)  Sw., 
var.  OBSCURUS  (Gm.)  Cs. 
Dwarf  Cowbird, 

212.  AGEL2EUS  PHCENICEUS  (L.)  V. 
Red-wing-ed  Rlackbird. 

*  This  should  stand  as  Molothrus  ater  (Gm.)  Gr. 


GEN.    89-93    OF   KEY.  45 

212a.   AGEL^IUS  PHCENICEUS  (L.)  V., 

var.  GUBERNATOR  (Wagl.)  Cs. 
Bed-shouldered  Blackbird. 

212b.   AGELJEUS  PHCENICEUS  (L.)  V., 

var.  TRICOLOR  (Nutt.)  Cs. 
II ed-and- white-shouldered  Blackbird. . 

213.  XANTHOCEPHALUS  ICTEROCEPHAT.US  (Bp.)  BD. 
Yellow-headed  Blackbird. 

~   214.   STUBNELIiA  MAGNA  (L.)  Sw. 
fieldlark;  Headou'lark. 

214a.   STURNELLA  MAGNA  (L.)  Sw., 
var.  NEGLECTA  (Aud.)  All. 
»  <"*K'rii  fieldlark. 

.    215.   ICTEKUS  SPURIUS  (L.)  BP. 
Orchard  Oriole. 

215a.  ICTERUS  SPURIUS  (L.)  BP., 

var.  AFFINIS  (Lawr.)  Cs.  * 

Texan  Orchard  Oriole. 

*  216.  ICTERUS  BALTIMORE  (L.)  DANDIN. 
Baltimore  Oriole. 

217.  ICTERUS  BULLOCKII  (Sw.)  BP. 

Bullock's  Oriole. 

218.  ICTERUS  CUCULLATUS  Sw. 

Hooded  Oriole. 

219.  ICTERUS  PARISORUM  BP. 

Scott's  Oriole. 

220.  ICTERUS  MELANOCEPHALUS  (WAGL.)  GR., 

var.  AUDUBONH  (Girand.)  Cs. 
Audubon's  Oriole. 

^-  221.   SCOLECOPHAGUS  PERRUGINEUS  (GM.)  Sw. 
Busty  Orackle. 


GEN.    93-97    OF   KEY.  47 

222.  SCOLECOPHAGUS  CYANOCEPHALUS  (WAGL.)  CAB. 

Blue-beaded  Grackle. 

223.  QUISCALUS  MACROURUS  Sw. 

Great-tailed  Grackle. 

224.  QUISCALUS  MAJOR  VIEIL. 
Boat-tailed  Grackle;  Jackdaw. 

225.  QUISCALUS  PURPUREUS  (BARTR.)  LIGHT. 
Purple  Grackle;  C  'row  Blackbird. 

225a.   QUISCALUS  PUBPUREUS  (BARTR.)  LIGHT., 

var.  AGL.EUS  (Bd.)  Cs. 
Florida  Orackle. 

226.  CORVUS  CORAX  LINN. 

Haven. 

227.  CORVUS  CRYPTOLEUCUS  COUCH. 

White-necked  Haven. 

228.  CORVUS  AMERICAKTTS  AUD. 

Common  Crow. 

228a.   CORVUS  AMERICANUS  AUD., 
var.  FLORID  ANUS  Bd. 
Florida  Crow. 

228b.   CORVUS  AMERICANUS  AUD.,  ' 

var.  CAURINUS  (Bd.)  Cs. 
northwestern  Fish  Crow. 

229.  CORVUS  OSSIPRAGUS  WILS. 

Fish  Crow. 

230.  PICICORVUS  COLUMBIANUS  (Was.)  BP. 

Clarke's  Crow. 

231.  GYMNOKITTA  CYANOCEPHALA  MAXIM. 

Blue  Crow. 


GEN.    98-101    OF   KEY.  49 

232.  PSILOBHINUS  MOBIO  (\\TAGL.)  GR. 

Brown  Jay. 

233.  PICAMELANOLEUCAV., 

var.  HUDSONICA  (Sab.)  All. 
American  Hag*pie. 

233a.   PICA  MELANOLETJCA  V., 

var.  NUTTALLI  (Aud.)  Cs. 
Yellow-billed  Hagi>ie. 

234.  CYANUBUS  CBISTATUS  (L.)  Sw. 

Blue  Jay. 

235.  CYANUBUS  STELLEBI  (GM.)  Sw. 

dteller'8  Jay. 

235a.   CYA3STUBUS  STELLEBI  (GM.)  Sw., 
var.  MACROLOPHA  (Bd.)  All. 
!Longr-crested  Jay. 

235b.*   CYANUBUS  STELLEBI  (GM.)  Sw., 

var.  FRONTALIS  Ridg. 
mue-fronted  Jay. 

236.  APHELOCOMA  FLOBIDANA  (BARTRAM)  CAB. 

Florida  Jay. 

236a.  APHELOCOMA  FLOBIDANA  (BARTR.)  CAB., 
var.  WOODHOUSEI  (Bd.)  All. 
Woodliouse's  Jay. 

236b.  APHELOCOMA  PLOBIDANA  (BARTR.)  CAB., 
var.  CALIFORNICA  (Vig.)  Cs. 
Californian  Jay. 

237.  APHELOCOMA  SOBDIDA  (Sw.)  CAB. 

Sieber's  Jay. 

*  Not  in  the  Key.    See  Ridgway,  Am.  Journ .,  v,  p.  43. 

CHECK  LIST  BIRDS.         4 


GEN.    102-107    OF    KEY.  51 

238.  XANTHOURA  YNCAS  (BODD.)  BP., 

var.  LUXUOSA  (Less.)  Cs. 
Rio  Grande  Jay. 

239.  PERISOREUS  CANADENSIS  (L.)  BP. 

Canada  Jay. 

[240.]  MILVULUS  TYRANNITS  (L.)  BP. 
Fork-tailed  Fly  catcher. 

241.  MILVULUS  FORPICATUS  (Gai.)  Sw.  . 

ft  wallow -tailed  Flycatcher. 

242.  TYRANNUS  CAROLINENSIS  (L.)  BD. 

King-Mrd;  Bee-martin. 

243.  TYRANNUS  DOMINICENSIS  (On.)  RICH. 

Gray  King-bird. 

244    TYRANNUS  VERTICALIS  SAY. 
Arkansas  flycatcher. 

245.    TYRANNUS  VOCIPERANS  Sw. 
Cassin's  Flycatcher. 

[246.]   TYRANNUS  MELANCHOLICUS  V., 

var.  COUCHII  (Bd.)  Cs. 
Couch's  Flycatcher. 

247.  MYIARCHUS  CRINITUS  (L.)  CAB. 

Great-crested  Flycatcher. 

248.  MYIARCHUS  CINERASCENS  LAWR. 

Ash-throated  Flycatcher. 

[249.]  MYIARCHUS  LAWRE3STCEI  (GIRAUD.)  BD. 
Lawrence's  Flycatcher. 

250.  SAYORNIS  SAYUS  (Bp.)  BD. 

Slay's  Flycatcher. 

251.  SAYORNIS  NIGRICANS  (Sw.)  BP. 

Black  Flycatcher. 


GEN.    107-110   OF   KEY.  53 


252.  SAYORNIS  FUSCTTS  (Gar.)  BD. 

Pewee;  I»ewit;  Phoebe. 

253.  CONTOPUS  BOREALIS  (Sw.)  BD. 

Olive-sided  Flyc*atcher. 

254.  CONTOPTJS  PERTINAX  CAB. 

Cones'  Flycatcher. 

255.  CONTOPUS  VIRENS  (L.)  CAB. 

Wood  Pewee. 

255a.   CONTOPUS  VIRENS  (L.)  CAB., 
var.  RICHAKDSONII  (Sw.)  Cs., 


256.  EMPIDONAX  ACADICUS  (Gsi.)  BD. 

Acadian  Flycatcher. 

257.  EMPIDONAX  TRAILLII  (AuD.)  BD. 

Traill'8  riycatclier. 

257a.  EMPIDONAX  TRAILLII  (AUD.)  BD., 

var.  PUSILLUS  (Bd.)  Cs. 
pLittle  ^irestern  Flycatcher. 

258.  EMPIDONAX  MINIMUS  BD. 

Least  Flycatcher. 

259.  EMPIDONAX  FLAVIVENTRIS  BD. 

Yellow-liellieil  Flycatcher. 

260.  EMPIDONAX  HAMMONDII  BD. 

Hammond^  Flycatcher. 

261.  EMPIDONAX  OBSCURUS  (Sw.)  BD. 

's  Flycatcher. 


262.  MITREPHORUS  FTJLVIFRONS  (GIRAUD.)  SCL. 

var.  PALLESCENS  Cs. 
BuflT-hreasted  Flycatcher. 


GEN.    Ill,    114-120    OF   KEY.  55 

263.  PYROCEPHALUS  RUBINEUS  (BODD.)  GR., 

var.  MEXICAXUS  (Scl.)  Cs. 
Vermilion  Flycatcher. 

264.  ANTROSTOMUS  CAROLINENSIS  (GM.)  GOULD. 

Chuck-will's-widow. 

265.  ANTROSTOMTJS  VOCIFERUS  (WILS.)  BP. 

W  hip  p  <><>f"  ill:  irig-ht-jar. 

266.  ANTROSTOMUS  NTJTTALLII  (AUD.)  CASS. 

X  ii  tta  I  T»  >V  h  i  i>]>oor*vil  I. 

267.  CHORDEILES  VIRGINIANTJS  ^BRISS.)  BP. 

Xig-hthawk. 

267a.   CHORDEILES  VIRGINIANUS  (BRISS.)  BP., 

var.  HENRYI  (Cass.)  All. 
Western  \  i^  lulia  \\  k. 

268.  CHORDEILES  TEXENSIS  LAWR. 

Texas 


269.  PANYPTILA  SAXATILIS  (WOODH.)  Cs. 

White-throated  Swift. 

270.  NEPHCECETES  NIGER  (GM.)  BD., 

var.  BOREALIS  (Kennerly)  Cs. 
Black  Swift. 

271.  CHJETURAPELASGIA  (L.)  STEPH. 

Chimney  Swift. 

272?   CHJETURA  VAUXII  (TOWNS.) 

Swift. 


273.  HELIOPJ3DICA  XANTTJSII  LAWR. 
X  am  11*  Humming-bird. 

[274.]   LAMPORNIS  MANGO  (L.)  Sw., 

(var.  PORPHYRULA?) 
Black-throated  Humming-bird. 


GEN.  121-125,  112,  113,  126,  127  OF  KEY.       57 

-*-  275.   TROCHILUS  COLUBRIS  L. 

Buby-throated  Humming-bird. 

276.  TROCHILUS  ALEXANDRI  BOURC. 
Black-chinned  Humming-bird. 

277.  SELASPHORUS  RUFUS  (Gaf.)  Sw. 
Butous-backed  Humming-bird. 

278.  SELASPHORUS  PLATYCERCUS  (Sw.)  GLD. 

Broad-tailed  Humming-bird. 

279.  SELASPHORUS  ANNA  (LESS.)—. 

Anna  Humming-bird. 

280.  SELASPHORUS   COSTJE  (Bounc.)  BP. 

Costa  Humming-bird. 

281.  SELASPHPRUS  HELOIS-S1  ( ) . 

Heloise  Humming-bird. 

282.  STELLULA  CALLIOPE  ( )  GLD. 

Calliope  Humming-bird. 

[283].   AGYRTRIA  LINNJSI  (Bp.)  . 

JLiiuit'  Humming-bird. 

[284].   TROGON  MEXICANUS   Sw. 
Mexican  Trog-on. 

[285].  MOMOTUS   C-SJRULEICEPS  GOULD. 
Blue-headed  Sawbill. 

-    286.   CERYLE  ALCYON  (L.)  BOIE. 
Belted  King-fisher. 

287.  CERYLE  AMERICANA  (GM.)  BOIE, 

var.  CABANISI  (Reich.)  Cs. 
Cabanis'  King-fisher. 

288.  CROTOPHAGA  ANI  L. 

Ani. 

289.  GEOCOCCYX  CALIPORNIANUS  (LESS.)  BD. 

Ground  Cuckoo  ;  Chaparral  Cock. 


GEN.    128-131    OF   KEY.  59 

rf    290.   COCCYZUS  EKYTHROPHTHALMTJS  (WILS!)  BD. 
Black-billed  Cuckoo. 

V  ^  291.   COCCYZUS  AMERICANTJS  (L.)  BP. 
Yellow-billed  Cuckoo. 

292.  COCCYZUS   SENICULUS  (LATH.) . 

Mangrove  Cuckoo. 

293.  CAMPEPHILUS  PRINCIPALIS  (L.)  GR. 

Ivory-billed  Woodpecker. 

294.  HYLOTOMUS  PILEATUS  (L.)  BD. 
Pileated  Woodpecker ;  Log-cock. 

295.  PICUS  ALBOLARVATUS  (CASS.)  BD. 

White-headed  Woodpecker. 

296.  PICUS  BOREALIS  V. 
Red-cockaded  Woodpecker. 

297.  PICUS   SCALARIS  WAGLER. 

Texas  Woodpecker. 

297a.   PICUS  SCALARIS  WAGL., 

var.  NUTTALLI  (Gamb.)  Cs. 
Nuttall's  Woodpecker . 

297b.  PICUS  SCALARIS  WAGL., 

var.  LUCASANUS  (Xant.)  Cs. 
St.  I^ucas  Woodpecker. 

\   •»  298.   PICUS  VILLOSUS  L. 
Hairy  f^oodpecker. 

298a.   PICUS  VILLOSUS  L., 

var.  HARRISI  (Aud.)  All. 
Harris'  Wroodpecker. 

-    299.  PICUS  PUBESCENS  L. 
Downy  Woodpecker. 


GEN.    yJl-134   OF   KEY.  61 

299a.   PIOUS  PUBESCENS  L., 

var.  GAiRDNEitii  (And.)  Cs. 
Gairdner's  Woodpecker. 

300.  PICOIDES  ARCTICUS  (Sw.)  GR. 
Black-backed  Woodpecker. 

301.  PICOIDES  AMERICAMTTS  BREHM. 
Banded-backed  Woodpecker. 

301a.  PICOIDES  AMERICANUS  BREHM., 

var.  DORSALIS  (Bd.)  All. 
Striped-backed  Woodpecker. 

302.  SPHYEAPICUS  VARIUS  (L.]  BD. 
Yellow-bellied  Wroodpecker. 

302a.   SPHYRAPICUS  VARIUS  (L.)  BD., 

var.  NUCHALIS  (Bd.)  All. 
]¥ucnal  Woodpecker. 

303?*  SPHYRAPICUS  RUBER  (GM.)  BD. 
Red-breasted  Wroodpecker. 

304.  SPHYRAPICUS  THYROIDEUS  (CASS.)  BD. 

ISro^vn-lieadod  Wroodpecker. 

305.  SPHYRAPICUS  WILLIAMSON1  (NEWB.)  BD.' 

Williamson's  Woodpecker. 

306.  CENTURUS   CAROLINUS  (L.)  BP. 

Bed-bellied  Wroodpecker. 

307.  CENTURUS  AURIFRONS  (WAGL.). 

Yellow-f ace«l  Wroodpecker. 

308.  CENTURUS  UROPYGIALIS  BD. 

Oila  Woodpecker. 

*  Apparently  a  var.  of  302. 


GEN.    135-140    OF   KEY.  63 

<  -*  309.  MELANERPES  ERYTHBOCEPHALUS  (L.)  Sw. 
Red-beaded  Woodpecker. 

310.  MELANERPES  FORMICIVORUS  (Sw.)  BP. 

California!!  Woodpecker. 

310a.  MELANERPES  FORMICIVORUS  (Sw.)  BP., 

var.  ANGUSTIFROXS  BD. 
Harrow-fronted  Woodpecker. 

311.  ASYNDESMUS  TORQUATUS  (WILS.)  Cs. 

Lewis'  Woodpecker. 

V  —  312.    COLAPTES  AURATUS  (L.)  Sw. 

Golden-wing-ed  Woodpecker;  Flicker. 

313.  COLAPTES   CHRYSOIDES  MALH. 

Gilded  Woodpecker. 

314.  COLAPTES  MEXICANUS   Sw. 
Red-shafted  Woodpecker. 

315.  CONTJRUS   CAROLINENSIS  (L.)  KUHL. 

Carolina  Parroquet. 

316.  STRIX  FLAMMEA  L., 
var.  AMERICANA  (Aud.)  Cs. 

liar i!   Owl. 

[  ^  317.  BUBO  VIRGINIANUS  (GM.)  BP. 
Oreat  Horned  Owl. 

317a.  BUBO  VIRGINIANUS  (GM.)  BP., 

var.  ARCTICUS  (Sw.)  Cass. 
Arctic  Horned  Owl. 

317b.  BUBO  VIRGINIANUS  (GM.)  BP., 

var.  PACIFICUS  Cass. 
Pacific  Horned  Owl. 


GEN.    141-147    OF   KEY.  65 


+.  318.   SCOPS  ASIO  (L.)  BP. 

Screech  Owl ;  Mottled  Owl. 

318a.   SCOPS  ASIO  (L.)  BP., 
var.  KENNICOTTH  (Ell.)  Cs. 
Kennicott's  Owl. 

318b.  SCOPS  ASIO  (L.)  BP., 
var.  MACCALLII  (Cass.)  Cs. 
McCall's  Owl. 

319.  SCOPS  PLAMMEOLA  SCL. 
Flammiilated  Owl. 

*,  320.   OTUS  VULGARIS  (L.), 
var.  WILSONIANUS  (Less.)  All. 
Longr-eared  Owl. 

321.  BRACHYOTUS  PALUSTRIS  AUCT. 

Short-eared  Owl. 

322.  SYRNIUM  LAPPONICUM  (L.), 

var.   CINEREUM  (Gm.)  Ridg. 
Great  Gray  Owl. 

X  -  323.   SYRNIUM  NEBULOSUM  (FORST.)  GR. 
Barred  Owl. 

324.   SYRNIUM  OCCIDENTALE  XANT. 
Barred  Owl. 


325.   NYCTEA  NIVEA  (BAUD.)  GR. 
Owl. 


326.  SURNIA  ULULA  (L.)  BP., 

var.  HUDSONICA  (Gm.)  Kidg. 
Hawk  Owl  ;  l>a.r  Owl. 

327.  NYCTALE  TENGMALMI  (GM.), 

var.  RICHARDSOXII  (Bp.)  Ridg. 
Teiig-nialni's  Owl. 

CHECK  LIST  BIRDS.         5 


GEN.    147-157    OF   KEY.  67 


328.  NYCTALE  ACADICA  (Gai.)  BP. 
Acadian  Owl  ;  Saw-whet  Owl. 

329.  GLAUCIDIUM  PASSERLNTTM, 

var.   CALIFOKNICUM  (Scl.)  Ridg. 
Owl. 


330.  GLAUCIDIUM  FERRUGINEUM. 

ferrugrineous  Owl. 

331.  MICRATHENE  WHITNEYI  (Coop.)  Cs. 

Whitney'*  Owl. 

332.  SPEOTYTO  CUNICULARIA  (MoL.), 

var.  HYPOG.EA.  (Bp.)  Cs. 
lliirrowingr  Owl. 

~    333.   CIRCUS  CYANEUS  (L.)  LAC£P., 

var.  HUDSONIUS  (L.)  Cs. 
Marsh  IlawK;   Harrier. 

334.  ROSTRHAMUS  SOCIABILIS  (V.)  D'ORB. 

Kverg-lade  Kite. 

335.  ICTINIA  MISSISSIPPIENSIS  (WiLS.)  GR. 

Kite. 


336.  ELANUS  LEUCURUS  (V.)  BP. 
^^bite-tailed  HLite  ;  Slack-shouldered  Mite. 

337.  NAUCLERUS  FURCATUS  (L.)  VIG. 

§wrallow-tailed  Kite. 

338.  ACCIPITERPUSCUS  (GM.)Bp. 
Hharp-shiniied  Ha  wit  ;  Pigreon  Hawk. 

339.  ACCIPITER  COOPERI  BP. 
Cooper's  Hawk;  Chicken  Hawk. 

340.  ASTUR  ATRICAPILLUS  (WiLS.)  BP. 


GEN.    158-159    OF   KEY.  69 


341.  FALCO  SACER  FORST. 
Ctyrfalcon  ;  Jerfalcon. 

341a.   FALCO  SACER  FORST., 
var.  CAXDICANS  (Gm.)  Ridg. 
Greenland  Gyrfalcon. 

342.  FALCO  MEXICANUS  LIGHT. 

l^anier  Falcon. 

•*%  343.   FALCO  COMMUNTS  VARIORUM. 
Peregrine  Falcon  ;  Duck  Hawk 

-   344.  FALCO  COLUMBARIUS  L. 
Pig-eon  Hawk. 

345.  FALCO  RICHARDSONI!  RIDG. 
Ricnardson's  Falcon. 

^    34G.   FALCO  SPARVERIUS  L. 
Hawk. 


34Ga.   FALCO  SPARVERIUS  L., 
var.  ISABELLINUS  (Sw.)  Ridg. 
Isabella  Sparrow  Hawk. 

347.  FALCO  FEMORALIS  TEMM. 

Femoral  Falcon. 

348.  BUTEO  UNICINCTUS  (TEMM.)  GR., 

var.  HARRISI  (Aud.)  Ridg. 
Harris'  Buzzard. 

349?  BUTEO  COOPERI  CASS. 
Cooper's  JBuzzard. 

350?  BUTEO  HARLANI  (AUD.)  BP. 
Harlan's  Buzzard. 

351.    BUTEO  BOREALIS  (GM.)  V. 
Red-tailed  Buzzard;  Hen  Hawk. 


GEN.    159-161    OF   KEY.  71 

351a.  BUTEO  BOREALIS  (GM.)  V., 

var.  CALURUS  (Cass.)  Ridg. 
Western  Red-tailed  Buzzard. 

351b.   BUTEO  BOREALIS  (GM.)  V., 

var.   LUC  AS  AN  us  Ridg. 
St.  Lucas  Buzzard. 

351c.*  BUTEO  BOREALIS  (GM.)  V., 

var.  KRIDERI. 
Krider's  Buzzard. 

t  "-  352.   BUTEO  LINEATUS  (GM.)  JARD. 
Bed-shouldered  Buzzard. 

352a.   BUTEO  LINEATUS  (GM.)  JARD., 

var.  ELEGANS  (Cass.)  Ridg. 
Western  Bed-shouldered  Buzzard. 

353.  BUTEO  ZONOCERCUS  SCL. 

Band-tailed  Hawk. 

354.  BUTEO  SWAINSONI  BP. 

Swainson's  Buzzard. 

355.  BUTEO  PENNSYLVANICUS  (WILS.)  BP. 

Broad-wingred  Buzzard. 

->•   35G.  ARCHIBUTEO  LAGOPUS  (BRUNN.)  GR., 
var.  SANCTI-JOIIANNIS  (Gin.)  Ridg. 
Roiigrli-leg*g-ed  Buzzard. 

357.  ARCHIBUTEO  PERRUGINEUS  (LIGHT.)  GR. 

ferrugrineous  Buzzard. 

358.  ASTURINA  PLAGIATA  SCHLEGEL. 

CJray  Ilan'k. 

359.f  OTT5TCHOTES  GRUBERI  RIDG. 
Buzzard. 


*  Sole.    Not  in  Key  ;  not  published  at  date  of  going  to  press. 
t359.    Questionably  North  American. 


GEN.    162-171    OF   KEY.  73 

-  3GO.   PANDION  HALIAETUS  (L.)  SAVIGNY. 
Fi*li  Kawk;  Osprey. 

3G1.   A<$UILA  CHRYSAETUS  (L.). 
Golden  £ag*le. 

—  3G2.  HALIAETUS  LEUCOCEPHALUS  (L.)  SAVIGXY. 
Wliitck-hckadikd  £agle;  Bald  Eagrle. 

363.  POLYBORTJS  THABUS  (MOLL.)  CASS., 
-oar.  AUDUsoxiiXCass.)  Kidg. 
'iii  Caracara. 


364.  CATHARTES  CALIFORNIANTJS  (SHAW)  Cuv. 

Californian  Vult  lire. 

365.  CATHARTES  AURA  (L.)  ILLIGKR. 

Turkey  Suzzard. 

366.  CATHARTES  ATRATUS  (BARTR.)  LESS. 

Black  Vulture  ;  Carrion  Crow. 

367.  COLUMBA  FASCIATA  SAY. 

Hand-tailed  Pig-eon. 

368.  COLUMBA  FLAVIROSTRIS  WAGLER. 

Red-billed  Pigreon. 

369.  COLUMBA  LEUCOCEPHALA  L. 

White-crowned  Pig-eon. 

-  370.   ECTOPISTES  MIGRATORIUS  (L.)  Sw. 
M'ild  Pig-eon. 

371.  ZEN^IDURA  CAROLINENSIS  (L.)  BP. 

Carolina  Dove. 

372.  ZENJEDA  AMABILIS  BP. 

Zenaida  Dove. 

373.  MELOPELEIA  LEUCOPTERA  (L.)  BP. 

White-wingred  Dove. 


GEN.    172-178    OF   KEY.  75 

374.  CHAMJEPELEIA  PASSERINA  (L.)  Sw. 

Ground  Dove. 

374a.   CHAMJEPELEIA  PASSEBINA  (L.)  Sw., 

var.  PALLESCENS  (Bd.)  Cs. 
St.  JLucas  Ground  Dove. 

375.  SCARDAPELLA  SQUAMOSA  (TEMM.)  BP., 

var.  INCA  (Less.)  Cs. 
Scaled  Dove. 

376.  GEOTRYGON  MARTINICA  (Gn.)  REICH. 

Key  West  Dove. 

377.  STARNCENAS   CYANOCEPHALA  (L.)  BP. 

Diue-headed  Ground  Dove. 

378.  ORTALIDA  VETULA  (WAGL.). 

Texan  Guan. 

379.  MELEAGRIS  GALLOPAVO  L. 

Turfeey. 

379a.  MELEAGRIS  GALLOPAVO  L., 

var.  AMERICANA  (Bartr.)  Cs. 
Common  Wild  Turkey. 

380.  TETRAO  CANADENSIS  L. 
Canada  Grouse ;  Spruce  Partridgre. 

380a.   TETRAO  CANADENSIS  L., 
var.  FRANKLINI  (Douglas)  Cs. 
Franklin's  Grouse. 

381.  TETRAO  OBSCURUS  SAY. 

Dusky  Grouse. 

381a.  TETRAO  OBSCURUS  SAY, 
var.  RICHARDSONH  (Dougl.)  Cs. 
Rlcnardson's  Grouse. 


GEN.    179-184    OF   KEY.  77 

382.  CENTROCERCUS  UROPHASIANTJS  (Bp.)  Sw. 

Sag-e  Cock;  Cock-of-tbe-Plains. 

383.  PEDICECETES  PHASIANELLUS  (L.)  ELL. 

Xortliorn  Mliarp-tailcd  Grouse. 

383a.   PEDICECETES  PHASIANELLUS  (L.)  ELL., 

var.  COLUMBIANUS  (Ord.)  Cs. 
Common  Sharp-tailed  Grouse. 

384.  CUPIDONIA  CUPIDO  (L.)  BD. 
Pinnated  Grouse ;  Prairie  Hen. 

385.  BONASA  UMBELLTJS  (L.)  STEPH. 
Ruffed  Grouse ;  Partridgre ;  Pheasant. 

385a.  BONASA  TJMBELLUS  (L.)  STEPH., 
var.  UMBELLOIDES  (Dougl.)  Bd. 
Gray  Ruffed  Grouse. 

385b.  BONASA  UMBELLUS  (L.)  STEPH., 

var.  SABINEI  (Dougl.)  Cs. 
Oreg-on  Ruffed  Grouse. 

386.  LAGOPUS  ALBUS  (GM.)  AUD. 

^Villow  Ptarmigran. 

387.  LAGOPUS  RUPESTRIS  (GM.)  LEACH. 

Rock  Ptarmig-an. 

388.  LAGOPUS  LEUCURUS  Sw. 
White-tailed  Ptarmigran. 

389.  ORTYX  VIRGINIANUS  (L.)  BP. 
Virginia Partridgre ;  Quail;  Ifoli-wliito. 

389a.   ORTYX  VIRGINIANUS  (L.)  BP., 

var.  FLORIDANUS  Cs. 
Florida  Partridgre. 


GEN.    184-192    OF   KEY.  79 

389b.   ORTYXVIRGINIANUS  (L.)Bp., 
var.  TEX  ANUS  (Lawr.)  Cs. 
Texan  Partridgre. 

390.  OREORTYX  PICTUS  (DOUGL.)  BD. 

Plumed  Partridge. 

391.  LOPHORTYX  CALIPORNICUS  (SHAW)  BP. 

Californian  Partridgre. 

392.  LOPHORTYX  GAMBELI  NUTT. 

Chambers  Partridgre. 

393.  CALLIPEPLA  SQUAMATA  (ViG.)  GR. 

Scaled  Partridgre. 

394.  CYRTONYX  MASSENA  (LESS.)  GLD. 

IKassena  Partridgre. 

395.  SQUATAROLA  HELVETICA  (L.)  Cuv. 

Black-bellied  Plover. 

396.  CHARADRIUS  FTJLVTJS  GM., 

var.  VIRGENICUS  (Borck.)  Cs. 
Oolden  Plover. 

—   397.  JEGIALITIS  VOCIPERUS  (L.)  CASS. 
Kildeer  Plover. 

398.  ^IGIALITIS  WILSONIUS  (ORD)  CASS. 

Plover. 


—   399.  JEGIALITIS  SEMIPALMATUS  (Bp.)  CAB. 
Semipalmated  Plover  ;  lliiig-iieck. 

400.  .ffiGIALITIS  MELODUS  (ORD)  CAB. 

Piping:  Plover;  Ringrneck. 

401.  ^IGIALITIS  CANTIANUS  (Lath.). 

Snowy  Plover. 


GEN.    191-202    OF   KEY.  81 

402.*  ^IGIALITIS  ASIATICTTS  (PALL.), 
var.  MONTANUS  (Towns.)  Cs. 
Mountain  Plover. 

403.  APHRIZA  VIRGATA  (GM.)  GR. 

Surf  Bird. 

404.  HJEMATOPTJS  PALLIATUS  TEMM. 

Oyster-catcher. 

405.  HJEMATOPUS  NIGER  PALLAS. 

Black  Oyster-catcher. 

406.  STREPSILAS  INTERPRES  (L.)  ILL. 

Turnstone. 

406a.   STREPSILAS  INTERPRES  (L.)  ILL., 

var.  MELANOCEPHALUS  (Vig.)  Cs. 
mack-headed  Turnstone. 

407.  RECURVIROSTRA  AMERICANA  GM. 

Avocet. 

408.  HIMANTOPTJS  NIGRICOLLIS  V. 

Stilt. 

409.  STEGANOPUS  WILSONI  (SAB.)  Cs. 

Wilson's  Phalarope. 

410.  LOBIPES  HYPERBOREUS  (L.)  Cuv. 

Northern  Phalarope. 

411.  PHALAROPUS  FULICARIUS  (L.)  BP. 

Bed  Phalarope. 

412.  PHILOHELA  MINOR  (GM.)  GR. 

American  Woodcock. 

[413.]   SCOLOPAX  RUSTICOLA  L. 
European  Woodcock. 

*May  require  to  stand  as  Eudromias  montanus  (Towns. ^  Harting. 

CHECK  LIST  BIKDS.         6 


GEN.    203-207    OF   KEY.  83 

-  414.   GALLINAGO  WILSONI  (TEMM.)  BP. 
American  Snipe;  Wilson'**  Snipe. 

415.  MACRORHAMPHUS  GRISEUS  (GM.)  LEACH. 
Ited-oreasted  Snipe. 

415a.   MACRORHAMPHUS  GRISEUS  (GM.) 
var.  SCOLOPACEUS  (Say)  Cs. 
Snipe. 


416.  MICROPALAMA  HIMANTOPUS  (Bp.)  BD. 

Stilt  Sandpiper. 

417.  EREUNETES  PUSILLUS  (L.)  CASS. 

Semipalmated  Sandpiper. 

417a.  EREUNETES  PUSILLUS  (L.)  CASS., 

var.  OCCIDENTALIS  (Lawr.)  Cs. 
Western  Semipalinated  Sandpiper. 

418.  TRINGA  MINUTILLA  V. 

Least  Sandpiper. 

419.  TRINGA  BAIRDII  COUES. 

Sandpiper. 


420.  TRINGA  MACULATA  V. 

Pectoral  Sandpiper. 

421.  TRINGA  BONAPARTE!  SCHL. 
White-rumped  Sandpiper. 

422?  TRINGA  COOPERI  BD. 
Cooper's  Sandpiper. 

423.  TRINGA  MARITIMA  BRUNNICH. 

Purple  Sandpiper. 

424.  TRINGA  ALPINA  L., 

var.  AMERICANA  Cass. 
American  Dunlin. 


GEN.    207-217   OF   KEY.  85 

425.  TBINGA  SUBABQTJATA  GULD. 

Curlew  Sandpiper. 

426.  TBINGA  CAWUTUS  L. 
Red-breasted  Sandpiper;  Knot. 

426bis.*  TBINGA  CBASSIBOSTBIS  SCHLEGEL. 
Thick-billed  Sandpiper. 

427.  CALIDBIS  ABENABIA  (L.)  ILL. 
Sanderlingr ;  Rudd y  riover. 

428.  LIMOSA  FEDOA  (L.)  ORD. 
Great  Garbled  Oodwit. 

429.  LIMOSA  HTJDSONICA  (LATH.)  Sw. 

Hudsonian  Oodivir. 

430.  LIMOSA  TJBOPYGIALIS  %OULD. 

TTnite-rumped  Ood^'it. 

431.  TOTANUS  SEMIPALMATUS  GM. 
Semipalniated  Tattler;  Willet. 

432.  TOTANUS  MELANOLEUCUS  GM. 

Greater  Tell-tale. 

433.  TOTANUS  PLAVIPES  GM. 

Y  e  1 1  o  w  -  s  li  anks . 

[434.]   TOTANUS  CHLOBOPUS  NILSSON. 
Oreen-slianks. 

435.  TOTANTJS  SOLITABIUS  WILS. 

Solitary  Tattler. 

436.  TBINGOIDES  MACULABIUS  (L.)  GR. 

Spotted  Sandpiper. 

*Not  in  the  Key.    Obtained  at  St.  Paul's  Island,  by  H.  W.  Elliot.    Identified  by 
J.  E.  Harting.    See  DALL,  Am.  Nat.,  vii,  Oct.,  1873,  p.  634. 


GEN.  218-222,  224-228  OF  KEY.  87 

[437.]  PHILOMACHUS  PUGNAX  (L.)  GR. 
Ruff;  Reeve. 

438.  ACTITUKUS  BARTRAMIUS  (WiLS.)  BP. 
Ila  rt  ram  iaii  Sandpiper ;  Upland  Plover. 

439.  TRYNGITES  RUPESCENS  (V.)  CAB. 

Ruff-breasted  Sandpiper. 

440.  HETEROSCELTJS  INCANTJS  (Gn.)  Cs. 

Wandering-  Tattler. 

441.  NTJMEimJS  LONGIROSTRIS  WILS. 

JLongr-billed  Curlew. 

442.  NTJMENITJS  HUDSONICUS  LATH. 

Hudsonian  Curleiv. 

448.  NUMENIUS  BOREALIS  (FORST.)  LATH. 
Ksquimaux  Curlew. 

444.  TANTALUS  LOCULATOR  L. 

Wood  Ibis. 

445.  IBIS  PALCINELLUS  AUCT., 

var.  ORDn  (Bp.)  All. 
Crlossy  Ibis. 

446.  IBIS  ALBA  (L.)  V. 

Wliif e  Ibis. 

[447.]   IBIS  RUBRA  (L.)  V. 
Searlet  Ibis. 

448.   PLATALEA  AJAJA  L. 
Roseate  Spoonbill. 

—    449.  ARDEA  HERODIAS  L. 
Great  Rlue  Heron. 

450?  ARDEA  WURDEMANNI  BD. 
Florida  Heron. 


GEN.  228-238,  223  OF  KEY.  89 


451.  ABDEA  OCCIDENTALIS  AUD. 

Groat  White  Heron. 

452.  ABDEA  EGBETTA  GM. 
Great  White  Egret. 

453.  ABDEA  CANDIDISSIMA  JACQUIN. 

little  White  Eg-ret. 

454.  ABDEA  LEUCOGASTBA  GM., 

var.  LEUCOPRYMNA  (Licht.)  Cs. 
louisiana  Heron. 

455.  ABDEA  BUPA  BODD. 

Reddish  Egret. 

456.  ABDEA  C^BTJLEA  L. 
l,i  t  tie  Blue  He  roii. 

*e  457.   ABDEA  VIBESCENS  L. 
Green  Heron. 

—  458.   NYCTIABDEA  GBISEA  (L.)  STEPH., 
var.  iraviA  (Bodd.)  Allen. 
Heron. 


459.  NYCTIABDEA  VIOLACEA  (L.)  Sw. 
Yellow'-crowTied  ^igrht  Heron. 


460.  BOTAUBUS  MINOB  (GM.). 
Bittern;  Indian  Hen. 

461.  ABDETTA  EXILIS  (GM.)  GR. 

least  Bittern. 

462.  GBUS  AMEBICANTJS  (L.)  ORD. 
Wrhite  Crane  ;  Whooping-  Crane. 

463.  GBUS  CANADENSIS  (L.)  TEMM. 
Brown  Crane  ;  Sandhill  Crane 


GEN.    239-247    OF   KEY.  91 

464.  ABAMUS  SCOLOPACEUS  (GM.)  V., 

var.  GIGANTEUS  (Bp.)  Cs. 
Scolopaceous  Courlan. 

465.  BALLUS  LONGIBOSTBIS  BODD. 
Clapper  Rail;  Salt-wrater  Marsh  Ken. 

466.  BALLUS  ELEGANS  AUD. 
Fro *li -water  3Iar»H  Hen. 

467.  BALLUS  VIBGINIANUS  L. 

Virginia  Rail. 

f  —     468.   POBZANA  CABOLINA  (L.)  V. 

Carolina  Rail;  Nora;  Ortolan. 

469.  POBZANA  NOVEBOBACENSIS  (GM.)  CASS. 

Yellow  Rail. 

470.  POBZANA  JAMAICENSIS  (GM.)  CASS. 

.    Slack  Rail. 

[471.]   CBEX  PBATENSIS  BECHSTEIN. 
Com  Crake. 

472.  GALLINULA  GALEATA  (LIGHT.)  BP., 

(CHLOROPUS  var?). 
Florida  Oallinule. 

473.  POBPHYBIO  MABTINICA  (L.)  TEMM. 

Purple  Oallinule. 

474.  FULICA  AMEBICANA  GM. 

Coot. 

475.  PHGENICOPTEBUS  BUBEB  L. 

Flamingro. 

476.  CYGNUS  BUCCINATOB  KICHARDSON. 

Trumpeter  §wran. 


GEN.    247-250    OF   KEY.  93 


477.  CYGNUS  AMERICANO'S  SHARPLESS. 

Whistling-  Swan. 

478.  ANSER  ALBIFRONS  GM., 

var.  GAMBELI  (Hartl.)  Cs. 
American  White-fronted  Goose. 

479?  ANSER  CJSRULESCENS  L. 
Blue  Goose. 

480.  ANSER  HYPERBOREUS  PALL. 

Snow  Goose. 

480a.   ANSER  HYPERBOREUS  PALL., 

var.  ALBATUS  (Cass.)  Cs. 
iLesser  Snow  Goose. 

481.  ANSER  ROSSII  BD. 

Goose. 


482.   PHILACTE  CAWAGICA  (SEVAST.)  BANN. 
Painted  Goose. 

[483.]  BRANTA  LEUCOPSIS  (L.). 
Barnacle  Goose. 

484.  BRANTA  BERNICLA  (L.). 

Brant  Goose. 

485.  BRANTA  CANADENSIS  (L.), 
Canada  Goose;  Wild  Goose. 

485a.  BRANTA  CANADENSIS  (L.), 

var.  LEUCOPAREIA  (Brandt)  Cs. 
White-collared  Goose. 

485b.  BRANTA  CANADENSIS  (L.), 
var.  HUTCHINSII  (Rich.)  Cs. 
Hutchins'  Goose. 


GEN.    251-259    OF   KEY.  95 

486.  DENDBOCYGNA  FULVA  (GM.)  BURM. 

Fulvous  Tree  Duck. 

487.  DENDBOCYGNA  AUTUMNALIS  (L.)  EYTON. 

Autumnal  Tree  Duck. 

488.  ANAS  BOSCHAS  L. 

Mallard. 

*~   489.   ANAS  OBSCUBA  GM. 
Duck. 


490.  DAPIIiA  ACUTA  (L.)  JENYNS. 

Pintail;  Sprig-tail. 

491.  CHAULELASMUS  STBEPEBUS  (L.)  GRAY. 

C»  ad  wall  ;  Gray  Duck. 

[492.]  MABECA  PENELOPE  (L.)  BP. 
European  Widgreon. 

493?  MABECA  AMEBICANA  (GM.)  STEPH. 
American  Widgreon;  Daldpate. 

[494.]  QUEBQUEDULA  CBECCA  (L.)  STEPH. 

Teal. 


495.  QUEBQUEDULA  CABOLINENSIS  (GM.). 

Green-wing-ed  Teal. 

496.  QUEBQUEDULA  DISCOBS  (L.)  STEPH. 

JBlue-wing-ed  Teal. 

497.  QUEBQUEDULA  CYANOPTEBA  (V.)  CASS. 

Cinnamon  Teal. 

498.  SPATULA  CLYPEATA  (L.)  BOIE. 

Snoveller. 

X—  499.   AIX  SPONSA  (L.)  BOIE. 

Summer  Duck  ;  Wood  Duck. 


GEN.   260-268    OF   KEY.  97 

600.  PULIGULA  MAKILA  (L.)  STEPH. 
Greater  Blackhead. 

501?  FULIGULA  APPINIS  EYTON. 
Lesser  Rlackliead. 

502.  FULIGULA  COLLABIS  (DONOVAN)  BP. 

Ring--necked  Duck. 

503.  FULIGULA  FEBINA  (L.)  Sw., 

var.  AMERICANA  (Eyton)  Coues. 
Redhead;  Pochard. 

504.  PULIGULA  VALLISNEBIA  (Was.)  STEPH. 

Canvas-hack. 

505.  BUCEPHALA  CLANGULA  (L.)  GR. 

CJoIdeii-eyed  Duck. 

506.  BUCEPHALA  ISLANDICA  (GM.)  BD> 

llarroiv's  Golden-eye. 

507.  BUCEPHALA  ALBEOLA  (L.)  BD. 

Ruffle-headed  Ruck. 

508.  HABELDA  GLACIALIS  (L.)  LEACH. 

liongr-tailed  Ruck. 

509.  CAMPTOLJEMUS  LABKADOKIUS  (GM.)  GR. 

Labrador  Ruck. 

510.  HISTBIONICUS  TOBQUATUS  (L.)  BP. 

Harlequin  Ruck. 

511.  SOMATEBIA  STELLEBI  (PALL.)  JARDINE. 

atelier's  Ruck. 

512.  SOMATEBIA  PISCHEBI  (BRANDT)  COUES. 

Spectacled  Eider. 

513.  SOMATEBIA  MOLLISSIMA  (L.)  LEACH. 

Eider  Ruck. 

CHECK  LIST  BIRDS.         7 


GEN.    268-274   OF   KEY.  99 

514?  SOMATERIA  V-NIGRA  GRAY. 
Pacific  Eider. 

515.   SOMATERIA  SPECTABILIS  (L.)  LEACH. 

Eider. 


516.  CEDEMIA  AMERICANA  Sw. 
American  lilack  Scoter. 

517.  (EDEMIA  FUSCA  (L.)  Sw., 

(?var.  VELVETINA  Cass.) 
Velvet  Scoter. 

518.  CEDEMIA  PERSPICILLATA  (L.)  FLEMING. 

Surf  Duck. 

518a.   CEDEMIA  PERSPICILLATA  (L.)  FUQHXG, 
var.  TRowmuDGEi  (Bd.)  Coues. 
!Longr-billed  Scoter. 

519.  ERISMATURA  RUBIDA  (WILS.)  BP. 

Ruddy  II  uck. 

[520.]   ERISMATURA  DOMINICA  (L.)  EYTON. 
St.  Roming-o  11  uck. 

521.  MERGUS  MERGANSER  L. 
Merg-anser  ;  Goosander. 

522.  MERGUS   SERRATOR  L. 
Red-breasted  ]tterg-anser. 

523.  MERGUS  CUCULLATUS  L. 

Hooded 


524.  SULA  BASS  ANA  L. 
Oannet;  Solan  Ooose. 

525.  SULA  FIBER  L. 
Rooby  Oaiinet. 

526.  PELECANUS  TRACHYRHYNCHTJS  LATH. 

Pelican. 


GfiEN.    274-280    OP   KEY.  101 

627.   PELECANUS  PUSCTJS  L. 
llroivii  Pelican. 

528.  GRACULUS  CARBO  (L.)  GRAY. 
Common  Cormorant;  Shag*. 

529.  GRACULUS  CINCINNATUS  (BRANDT)  GMAT. 

Wliite-tuftefl  Cormorant. 

530.  GRACULUS  DILOPHUS  (Sw.)  GRAY. 

Double-crested   Cormorant. 

530a.   GRACULUS  DILOPHUS  (Sw.)  GRAY, 
var.  FLORID  ANUS  (A  ad.)  Cones. 
Florida  Cormorant. 

531.  GRACULUS  MEXICAMTTS  (BRANDT)  BP. 

Mexican  Cormorant. 

632.   GRACULUS  PENICILLATUS  (BRANDT)  BP. 
Brandt's  Cormorant. 

533.  GRACULUS  PERSPICILLATUS  (PALL.)  LAWK. 

Pallas'  Cormorant. 

534.  GRACULUS  BICRISTATUS  (PALL.)  BD. 

Red-faced  Cormorant. 

635.  GRACULUS  VTOLACEUS  (GM.)  GR. 

Tiolet-grreen  Cormorant. 

636.  PLOTUS  ANHINGA  L. 

Anliingra;  Darter. 

537.   TACHYPETES  AQUILUS  (L.)  V. 
JFrigrate. 

638.  PHAETHON  FLAVIROSTRIS  BRANDT. 

Yellow-billed  Tropic  Bird. 

639.  STERCORARIUS  SKUA  (BRUNN.)  COUBB. 

(ikua  Oull. 


GEN.    280-231    OF   KEY.  103 

540.  STERCORARIUS  POMATORHINUS  (TKMM.)  LAWR. 

Pomarine  Jaegrer. 

541.  STERCOKARIUS  PARASITICUS  (BRUNN.)  GRAY. 

Jaegrer. 


542.  STERCORARIUS  BUFFONI  (BOIE)  COUES. 
Arctic  Jaeg-er  ;  l.ong--tailed  Jaegrer. 

543.  LARUS  GLAUCUS  BRUNN. 

Glaucous  Gull. 

544.  LARUS  LEUCOPTERUS  FABER. 

White-wing-ed  Gull. 

545.  LARUS  GLAUCESCENS  LIGHT. 

Glaucous-wing-ed  Criill. 

546.  LARUS  MARINUS  L. 
Great  Black-backed  Gull. 

647.  LARUS  ARGENTATUS  BRUNN. 
Herring*  Gull;  Common  Gull. 

547a.  LARUS  ARGENTATUS  BRUNN., 

var.  SMITHSONIANUS  Coues. 
American  Herring*  Gull. 

547b.  LARUS  ARGENTATUS  BRUNN., 
var.  OCCIDENTALS  (And.)  Coues. 
Western  Herring-  Gull. 

548.  LARUS  DELAWARENSIS  ORD. 

Iting*-billed  Gull. 

548a.   LARUS  DELAWARENSIS  ORD, 
var.  CALIFORNICUS  (Lawr.)  Coues. 
Californian  Gull. 

549.  LARUS  CANUS  L., 

Var.  BRACHYRHYNCHUS    (Rich.)    COUCS. 

American  ^lew  Gull. 


GEN.   281-291    OF  KEY.  105 

550.  LARUS  EBURNEUS  GM. 

Ivory  Gull. 

551.  LARTJS  BELCHERI  VIGORS. 

White-headed  Gull 

552.  LARUS  TRIDACTYLUS  L. 

Kittiwake  Gull. 

552a.  LARUS  TRIDACTYLUS  L., 
var.  KOTZEBUI  (Bp.)  Coues. 
Pacific  Kittiwake. 

553.  LARUS  BREVIROSTRIS  (BRANDT)  COUES. 

Short-hilled  Kittiwake. 

554.  LARUS  ATRICILLA  L. 

Gull. 


555.  LARUS  FRANKLINI  RICH. 

Franklin's  Rosy  Gull. 

556.  LARUS  PHILADELPHIA  (Oiu>)  COUES. 

Bonaparte's   Gull. 

557.  RHODOSTETHIA  ROSE  A  (MACGILL.)  BP. 

Wedgre-tailed  Gull. 

558.  XEMA  SABINEI  (SAB.)  BP. 

Fork-tailed  Gull. 

659.  XEMA  FURCATUM  (NEBOUX). 
Swallow-tailed  Gull. 

560.  STERNA  ANGLICA  MONTAGU. 
Gull-hilled  Tern  ;  Jflarsh  Tern. 

561.  STERNA  CASPIA  PALLAS, 

var.  IMPERATOR  Coues. 
Caspian  Tern. 

662.   STERNA  REGIA  GAMBEL. 
Royal  Tern. 


GEN.    291-295    OF    KEY.  107 

563.   STERNA  GALERICULATA  LIGHT. 
JBlegrant  Tern. 

5G4.   STERNA  CANTIACA  GM. 
Sandwich  Tern. 

565.  STERNA  HIRUNDO  L. 
Common  Tern;  Sea  *  wallow. 

566.  STERNA  PORSTERI  NUTT. 

Forster's  Tern. 

567.  STERNA  MACROURA  NAUMANN. 

Arctic  Tern. 

568.  STERNA  LONGIPENNIS  NORDMANN. 

Pike's  Tern. 

569.  STERNA  PARADIS^IA  BRUNN. 

Roseate  Tern. 

670.   STERNA  SUPER CILIARIS  V. 
Least  Tern. 

[571.]   STERNA  TRUDEAUI  AUD. 
Trudeau's  Tern. 

572.  STERNA  ALEUTICA  BAIRD. 

Aleutian  Tern. 

573.  STERNA  FULIGINOSA  GM. 

Sooty  Tern. 

[574.]   STERNA  ANOSTHJETA  SCOPOLI. 
Bridled  Tern. 

575.  HYDROCHELIDON  PISSIPES  (L.)  GRAY. 

Black  Tern. 

576.  ANGUS  STOLIDUS  (L.)  LEACH. 

Noddy  Tern. 

577.  RHYNCHOPS  NIGRA  L. 

Black  Skimmer. 


GEN.    296-305    OF   KEY.  109 

578.  DIOMEDEA  BBACHYUKA  TEMM. 

Short-tailed  Albatross. 

579.  DIOMEDEA  NIGBIPES  AUD. 
Black-footed  Albatross. 

580.  DIOMEDEA  FULIGINOSA  GM. 

Sooty  Albatross. 

581.  FULMABUS  GIGANTEUS  (GM.). 

Giant  Fulmar. 

582.  FULMABUS  GLACIALIS  (L.)  STEPH. 

fulmar  Petrel. 

582a.  FULMABUS  GLACIALIS  (L.)  STEPH., 
var.  PACIFICUS  (Aud.)  Coues. 
Pacific  Fulmar. 

582b.   FULMABUS  GLACIALIS  (L.)  STEPH., 
var.  RODGERSI  (Cass.)  Coues. 
Rodgrers'  Fulmar. 

[583.]  FULMABUS  TENUIBOSTBIS  (AUD.)  COUKS. 
Slender-billed  Fulmar. 

[584.]   DAPTION  CAPENSIS  (L.)  STEPH. 
Pintado  Petrel ;  Cape  Pig-eon. 

[585.]  JSSTBELATA  HJESITATA  (KUHL)  COUES. 
Black-capped  Petrel. 

586.  HALOCYPTENA  MICBOSOMA  COUES. 
Wedgre-tailed  Petrel;  Least  Petrel. 

587.  PBOCELLABIA  PELAGICA  L. 

Stormy  Petrel ;  Mother  Carey's  Chicken. 

588.  CYMOCHOBEA  LEUCOBBHOA  (V.)  COUES. 

Leach's  Petrel. 

589.  CYMOCHOBEA  MELANIA  (Bp.)  COUES. 

Black  Petrel. 


GEN.    305-310  OF  KEY.  Ill 

590.  CYMOCHOREA  HOMOCHROA  COUES. 

Ashy  Petrel. 

591.  OCEANODROMA  FURCATA  (GM.)  BP. 

Fork-tailed  Petrel. 

592.  OCEANODROMA  HORNBYI  (GBAY)  Bp, 

Hornby's  Petrel. 

593.  OCEANITES  OCEANICA  (KUHL)  COUES. 

Wilson's  Petrel. 

[591.]  FREGETTA  GRALLARIA  (V.)  Bp. 
White-beHied  Petrel. 

[595.]  PUPFINUS  MELANURUS  (BONN.)  COUES. 
Jflack-tailetl  Shearwater. 

596.  PUFFINUS  KUHLII  BP. 
Cinereous  Shearwater. 

597.  PUFFINUS  MAJOR  FABER. 

Oreater  Shearwater. 

598?  PUFFINUS  CREATOPUS  COUES. 
flesh-tooted  Shearwater. 

599.   PUFFINUS  ANGLORUM  TEMM. 
Shearwater. 


600.  PUFFINUS  OBSCURUS  (Gsi.)  LATH. 

Dusky  Shearwater. 

001?  PUFFINUS  OPISTHOMELAS  COUES. 
Itlacli-veiited  shearwater. 

602?  PUFFINUS  FULIGINOSUS  STRICKL. 
Sooty  Shearwater. 

603?  PUFFINUS  AMAUROSOMA  COUES. 
Dark-bodied  Shearivater. 

601.  PUFFINUS  TENUIROSTRIS  TKMM. 

Slender-billed  Shearwater. 


GEN.    311-314   OF   KEY.  113 

605.  COLYMBUS  TORQUATUS  BRUNN. 
toon;  Groat  3fortlicrii  IHvcr. 

605a.   COLYMBUS  TORQUATUS  BRUNN., 

var.  ADAMSII  (Gray)  Coues. 
irelloiv-billcd   to  on. 

606.  COLYMBUS  ARCTICUS  L. 
ISlacK-tltroatcd  Diver. 

606a.   COLYMBUS  ARCTICUS  L., 
var.  PACIFICUS  (Lawr.)  Coues. 
Pacific  Diver. 

—    607.   COLYMBUS  SEPTENTRIONALIS  L. 
Red-tbroated  Diver. 

608.  PODICEPS  OCCIDENTALS  LAWR. 

Western  O relic. 

608a.  PODICEPS  OCCIDENTALS  LAWR., 
var.  CLARKII  (Lawr.)  Coues. 
Clarke's  Grebe. 

609.  PODICEPS  CRISTATUS  (L.)  LATH. 

Crested  Grebe. 

610.  PODICEPS  GRISEIGENA  (BODD.)  GRAY, 

var   HOLBOLLI  (Reinh.)  Coues. 
Red-necked  Grebe. 

—  611.*PODICEPS  CORNUTUS  (Gai.)  LATQ. 
Horned  Grebe. 

612.  PODICEPS  AURITUS  (L.)  LATH., 

var.  CALIFORNICUS  (Heerm.)  Coues. 
American  Eared  Grebe. 

613.  PODICEPS  DOMINICUS  (L.) 

St.  Domingro  Grebe. 

CHECK  LIST  BIRDS.         8 


GEN.    315-323    OF  KEY.  115 

6H.  PODILYMBUS  PODICEPS  (L.)  LAWR. 
Pied-billed   l>al><  hi<  k. 

615.  ALGA  IMPENNIS  L. 

Oreat  Auk. 

[Extinct  ?] 

616.  UTAMANIA  TORDA  (L.)  LEACH. 

Razor-billed  Auk. 

617.  FRATERCULA  CORNICULATA  (NAUM.)  GRAY. 

Honied  Puffin. 

618.  FRATERCULA  ARCTICA  (L.)  STEPH. 

Common  Puffin;   Sea  Parrot. 

618a.   PRATERCULA  ARCTICA  (L.)  STEPH., 
var.  GLACIALIS  (Leach)  Cones. 
Largre-billed  Puffin. 

619.  PRATERCULA  CIRRHATA  (PALL.)  STEPH. 

Tufted  Puffin. 

620.  CERATORHINA  MONOCERATA  (PALL.)  CASS. 

Horn-billed  Auk. 

621.  PHALERIS  PSITTACTJLA  (PALL.)  TEMM. 

Parroquet  Auk. 

622.  SIMORHYNCHUS    CRISTATELLUS  (PALL.)  MBRREM. 

Crested  Auk. 

623.  SIMORHYNCHUS  CAMTSCHATICUS  (LEPECH,)  SCHL. 

Whiskered  Auk. 

624.  SIMORHYNCHUS  PUSILLUS  (PALL.)  COTTES. 

K^nob-billed  Auk;   Least  Auk. 

626.  PTYCHORHAMPHUS  ALEUTICUS  (PALL.)  BRANDT. 
Aleutian  Auk. 


GEN.    324-328    OF   KEY.  117 

626.  MERGULUS  ALLE  (L.)  VIEILL. 

Sea  Dove ;  I>ovekie. 

627.  SYKTTHLIBORHAMPHUS  ANTIQUUS  (Gn.)  BRANDT. 

lllack-tliroatctl  Guillemot. 

628.  SYNTHLIBORHAMPHUS 

WURMIZUSUME  (TEMM.)  COUM. 
Temmiiick's  Auk. 

629.  BRACHYRHAMPHUS  MARMORATUS  (GM.)  BRANDT. 

Marbled  Murrelet. 

630.  BRACHYRHAMPHUS  KITTLITZII  BRANDT. 

JKittlitz's  Murrelet. 

631.  URIA  GRYLLE  (L.)  BRUNN. 
Slack  Ouillemot ;  §ea  Pig-eon. 

632.  URIA  COLUMBA  (PALL.)  CASS. 

Pig-eon  Oulllemot. 

633.  URIA  CARBO  (PALL.)  BRANDT. 

Sooty  Guillemot. 

634.  LOMVIA  TROILE  (L.)  BRANDT. 
Common  Guillemot;  IHurre. 

635.  LOMVIA  ARRA  (PALL.)  COUES. 

Tnick-billed  Guillemot. 


EXTESTCT  SPECIES. 


1.  TJINTOBNIS  LUCABIS  MARSH. 

2.  AQUILA  BANANA  MARSH. 

3.  BUBO  LEPTOSTEUS  MARSH. 

4.  MELEAGBIS  ANTIQUUS  MARSH. 

5.  MELEAGBIS  ALTUS  MARSH. 

6.  MELEAGBIS  CELEB  MARIH. 

7.  GBTTS  HAYDENI  MARSH. 

8.  GBUS  PBOAVUS  MARSH. 

9.  ALETOBNIS  NOBILIS  MARSH. 

10.  ALETOBNIS  PEBNIX  MARSH. 

11.  ALETOBNIS  VENUSTUS  MARSH. 

12.  ALETOBNIS  GBACILIS  MARSH. 

13.  ALETOBNIS  BELLUS  MARSH. 

14.  TELMATOBNIS  PBISCUS  MARSH. 

15.  TELMATOBNIS  AFPINIS  MARSH. 


(119) 


EXTINCT    SPECIES.  121 

16.  PALJSOTRINGA  LITTORALIS  MARSH. 

17.  PAL^OTRINGA  VETUS  MARSH. 

18.  PAL-ffiOTRINGA  VAGANS  MARSH. 

19.  STJLA  LOXOSTYLA  COPE. 

20.  GRACULUS  IDAHENSIS  MARSH. 

21.  GRACULAVUS  VELOX  MARSH. 

22.  GRACULAVUS  PUMILUS  MARSH. 

23.  GBACULAVUS  ANCEPS  MARSH. 
23bis.*   GRACULAVUS  AGILIS  MARSH. 

24.  ICHTHYORNIS  DISPAR  MARSH. 
24bis.f  APATORNIS  CELER  MARSH. 

25.  PUPPINUS  CONRADI  MARSH. 

26.  CATARRACTES  ANTIQUUS  MARSH. 

27.  CATARRACTES  APPINIS  MARSH. 

28.  HESPERORNIS  REGALIS  MARSH. 

29.  LAORNIS  EDVARDSIANUS  MARSH. 


*Not  in  the  Key.    (Marsh,  Am.  Jour.,  Sci.  and  Arts,  v,  p.  230,  March,  1873.) 

fNot  In  the  Key.  This  species,  with  No.  24,  represents  a  nevr  order,  Ichthyor- 
nithes,  of  a  new  subclass,  Odontornithes.  (Marsh,  Am.  Jour.,  Sci.  and  Arts,  v, 
p.  161,  Feb.,  1873.) 


APPENDIX 

CONTAINING 

ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS 
TO  THE  CHECK  LIST. 


PREPARED  under  circumstances  of  remote  isolation  which  deprived 
the  author  of  the  advantage  of  certain  works  of  reference  he  desired 
to  consult,  the  CHECK  LIST  contains  some  names  for  which  no 
authority  is  cited,  and  in  a  few  instances  a  change  of  the  authority 
given  may  be  required. 

One  new  species  has  been  added  to  the  North  American  fauna  during 
the  printing  of  the  List ;  five  additional  known  species  have  since  been 
ascertained  to  occur  in  this  country,  and  meanwhile  several  new  varie- 
ties have  been  published  after  the  impression  had  passed  the  page 
where  they  should  respectively  appear;  these  are  brought  into  the 
present  connection.  Most  of  them  appear  entitled  to  varietal  recog- 
nition; but  in  printing  the  names  formally,  for  the  convenience  of 
those  who  may  desire  to  use  such  names  in  labelling,  the  author  must 
not  necessarily  be  held  to  endorse  them  in  every  instance. 

The  body  of  the  List  was  printed,  and  some  early  copies  distributed, 
in  Dec.,  1873;  but  the  publication  of  the  volume  was  held  over  until 
1874,  to  insert  in  the  Appendix  names  then  about  being  published. 


No.  41?  The  query  indicates  a  probability  that  this  is  a  variety  of 
No.  40,  as  held  by  Mr.  Allen. 

No.  46.   The  United  States  form  constitutes  a  variety  of  true  mexi- 
canus.     See  Ridgway,  Am.  Nat.,  vii,  1873,  603. 

(123) 


APPENDIX  TO  CHECK   LIST.  125 

46.    CATHERPES  MEXICANUS  (Sw.)  BD., 

var.  COXSPERSUS  Ridg. 
White-throated  Wren. 

No.  53a.    The  pale  western  Eremophila,  not  the  same  as  the  small 
bright  southwestern  var.  rufa,  may  be  distinguished  as 

53b.  EBEMOPHILA  ALPESTRIS  (FORST.), 
var.  LEUCOL^EMA  Coues. 
Prairie 


No.  55bis.  The  following  species,  a  straggler  from  Asia,  is  in  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  from  St.  Michael's,  Alaska,  and  should  take 
place  in  the  list. 

[55bis.]  ANTHUS  PRATENSIS  BECHST. 
Aleadow  Pipit. 

No.  68.  *The  Pacific  form  is  varietally  distinguishable.  See  Ridg- 
way,  Am.  Nat.,  vii,  1873.  606.  The  Floridan  form,  later  distinguished 
by  Mr.  Ridgway  as  var.  obscurus,  seems  hardly  worthy  of  recognition 
by  name. 

68a.  HELMINTHOPHAGA  CELATA  (SAY)  BD., 

var.  LUTESCENS  Ridg. 
Golden  Orangre-crowned  Warbler. 

No.  88.  On  the  Mississippi  Valley  form,  see  Ridgway,  Am.  Nat., 
vii,  1873,  606. 

88a.   DENDRCECA  DOMINICA  (L.)  BD., 

var.  ALBILORA  Bd. 
White-browed  Yellow-throated  Warbler. 

No.  99  ?  The  probability  mentioned  in  the  text  may  be  regarded  as 
assured. 

No.  102.  The  Pacific  form  is  varietally  distinguishable.  See  Ridg- 
way, Am.  Nat.,  vii,  1873,  608. 

102a.   MYIODIOCTES  PUSILLUS  (WILS.)  BP., 

var.  PILEOLATA  (Pall.)  Ridg. 
Pacific  Flycatching-  Warbler. 

[No.  106.]  According  to  Baird  and  Ridgway,  Am.  Nat.,  vii,  1873, 
612,  this  should  stand  as  C.  bahamensis. 

[106.]   CERTHIOLA  BAHAMENSIS  Reich. 
Honey  Creeper. 


APPENDIX    TO    CHECK   LIST.  127 

No.  135a.  The  C.  elegans  of  Baird  (not  of  Swainson)  has  been  re- 
named G.  ludomcianus  var.  robustus,  a  name  which,  however,  it  may 
not  be  necessary  to  adopt.  (Am.  Nat.,  vii,  1873,  609.) 

[No.  138]  ?  The  query  indicates  that  the  determination  of  specific 
validity,  cited  and  adopted  in  the  Key,  may  have  been  made  by  Dr. 
Tristram  on  grounds  held  in  the  Key  to  constitute  only  geographical 
varieties ;  so  that  we  may  revert  to  the  view  of  its  original  describer 
as  P.  coccinea  var.  cassini  Bd. 

[138.]  PYKRHULA  COCCINEA, 

var.  CASSINI  Bd. 
Cassin's  Bullfinch. 

No.  144.  The  Leucosticte  tephrocotis  var.  australis  Allen,  lately  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Ridgway  (Ess.  Inst.  Bull.,  v,  197),  I  believe  to  be 
merely  the  midsummer  plumage  of  the  ordinary  bird,  as  my  ^Egiothus 
var.  fuscescens  probably  is  of  A.  linaria. 

No.  155.   For  chestnut-colored  read  chestnut-collared. 

"    157.  Omit  the  query,  which  should  have  been  affixed  to  the  next 
species. 

No.  157bis.  To  be  cancelled.  See  Scott,  Am.  Nat.,  vii,  1873,  564; 
Coues,  ibid.,  p.  696. 

No.  165.  There  is  a  curious  small  blackish  form  of  this  species  from 
Florida,  which  has  been  distinguished  (Bull.  Ess.  Inst.,  v,  198)  as 

165a.  AMMODROMUS  MARITIMUS  Sw., 

var.  NIGRESCENS  Ridgw. 
Dusky  Seaside  Fiiicli. 

No.  170a.  Mr.  Ridgway  has  lately  demonstrated  to  my  satisfaction 
that  Peuccea  cassini  is  a  distinct  species ;  the  bird  which  I  called  "var. 
cassini"  is  a  variety  of  cestivalis  which  he  proposes  to  call  var.  arizonce. 
Am.  Nat.,  vii,  1873,  616.  So  the  species  and  varieties  will  stand  :— 

170a.   PETJCJEA  .ZBSTIVALIS  (LIGHT.)  CAB., 

var.  ARIZONA  Ridg. 
Arizona  Pine  Fiiioli. 

170bis.  PETJC-SIA  CASSIWT  (WOODH.)  BD. 
Cassin's  Pine  Finch. 

No  173.  A  very  notable  variety  of  Poospiza  belli,  from  Nevada,  has 
lately  been  characterized  (Bull.  Ess.  Inst.,  v,  198).  It  is  much  larger, 
paler  and  grayer,  with  streaked  interscapulars. 

173a.  POOSPIZA  BELLI  (CASS.)  SCL., 
var.  NEVADENSIS  Ridg. 
lievadan  Fincn. 


APPENDIX   TO    CHECK   LIST.  129 

No.  174.  The  form  of  Junco  with  white  wing-bars,  noted  in  the 
Key,  p.  Hi,  is  named  J.  hijemalis  var.  aikeni  Kidgway,  Am.  Nat.,  vii, 
1873, 616.  See  also  Pr.  Bost.  Soc.,  xv,  1872,  p.  201. 

174a.  JUNCO  HYEMALIS  (L.)  Scl., 

var.  AIKENI  Ridg. 
White-wingrcd  Snowbird. 

Nos.  175?  176?  The  queries  indicate  the  gradation  with  No.  174 
noted  in  the  Key,  p.  141. 

No.  183a.  The  true  Z.  leucophrys  var.  gambeli  is  a  Pacific  coast  form, 
from  which  the  Middle  Coast  form  has  been  distinguished  (Bull.  Ess. 
Inst.,  v,  198)  as 

183b.   ZONOTRICHIA  LEUCOPHRYS  (FoRST.)  Sw., 

var.  INTERMEDIA  Ridgw. 
Ridgrway's  Sparrow. 

No.  206.   For  Canon  read  Canon. 

"    210.   The  prairie  form   has  been  characterized  as  Dolichonyx 
oryzivorus  var.  albinucha  Ridg.  (Bull.  Ess.  Inst.,  v,  198),  a  name  it 
may  not  be  necessary  to  adopt. 
No.  216.   For  Daudin  read  Daudin. 

"    220.   For  Girand  read  Giraud. 

"    226.    For  Nuttallii  read  Nuttalli. 

"    229a.    For  Gairclnerii  read  Gairdneri. 

"  237.  The  question  of  synonymy  left  open  in  the  Key,  p.  166,  has 
been  determined  (Bull.  Ess.  Inst.,  v,  199)  as  follows:  "A.  sordida" 
of  the  Key  is  a  new  variety,  arizonce  of  ultramarina,  the  true  sordida 
being  a  Mexican  variety  of  the  same  species.  Accordingly,  No.  237 
should  stand  as 

237.  APHELOCOMA  ULTRAMARINA  (Bp.)  CAB., 

var.  ARIZONA  (Ridg.) 
Arizona  Ultramarine  Jay. 

No.  239.  Two  varieties  of  Canada  jay,  one  from  Alaska,  the  other 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  have  lately  been  named  (Bull.  Ess.  Inst., 
v,  199). 

239a.  PERISOREUS  CANADEWSIS  (L.)  BP., 

var.  OBSCURUS  Ridg. 
Dusky  Canada  Jay. 

239b.  PERISOREUS  CANADENSIS  (L.)  BP., 

var.  CAPITALIS  Bd. 
Rocky  ^fountain  Jay. 

CHECK  LIST  BIRDS.         9 


APPENDIX   TO   CHECK   LIST.  131 

No.  274bis.  A  fine  species  of  humming  bird  has  been  discovered  by 
Mr.  H.  W.  Henshaw  to  inhabit  Arizona,  and  has  been  determined 
by  Mr.  Lawrence  to  be  Eugenes  fulgens.  (Am.  Nat.,  viii,  1874,  in 
press.) 

274bis.   EUGENES  FULGENS  (Sw.). 
Refulg-ent  Humming-bird. 

No.  279.   The  authority  is  (LESS.)  BP. 

"    281.  The  authority  is  (LESS.)  GLD. 

"    292.   The  authority  is  (LATH.)  NUTT. 

"  303  ?  This  species,  queried  in  the  text,  and  in  Key,  p.  195,  may 
be  regarded  as  a  variety  of  302,  the  intergradation,  through  302a,  prov- 
ing complete.  See  Ridgway,  Am.  Jour.,  iv,  Dec.,  1872. 

302b.   SPHYRAPICUS  VAKIUS  (L.)  BD., 

var.  RUBER  (Gm.)  Ridg. 
Red-breasted  Woodpecker. 

Nos.  304,  305.  Observations  lately  made  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Henshaw 
(Am.  Nat.,  viii,  1874,  in  press)  are  to  the  effect  that  Sphyrapicus  thy- 
roideus  is  the  female  of  S.  williamsoni.  The  opposite  sexes  of  each 
of  these  species  have  not  been  satisfactorily  recognized,  and  upon 
examination  of  Mr.  Henshaw's  material,  I  find  almost  conclusive  evi- 
dences in  favor  of  his  views,  substantiating  his  observations.  Such 
sexual  differences  are  unique  in  the  family.  As  the  older  name,  S. 
thyroideus  will  stand  for  the  species,  8.  williamsoni  becoming  a  syno- 
nyme.  No.  305  is  therefore  to  be  cancelled. 

No.  307.   The  authority  is  (WAGL.)  GRAY. 

No.  318.  A  dark  Floridan  form  of  Scops  has  been  characterized 
under  the  following  name  (Bull.  Ess.  Inst.,  v,  200)  :— 

818c.   SCOPS  ASIO  (L.)  BP., 

var.  FLORIDANUS  Ridg. 
Flo  rid  a  ii  *  ere  celt  Owl. 

No.  320.  The  authority  is  FLEMING. 
"    321.   The  authority  is  (BKCHST.)  BP. 

"  322.  The  term  cinereutri  has  priority  over  lapponicum  ;  the  bird 
should  stand  as 

322.  SYRNTUM  CINEBEUM  (GM.)  AUD., 
Circa*  Gray  Owl. 

No.  327.  The  authority  is  (GM.)  BP. 
"    329.   The  authority  is  (L.)  BP. 
"    330.   The  authority  is  (MAX.)  KAUP. 


APPENDIX   TO   CHECK   LIST.  133 

Nos.  343,  344.  The  dark  northwest  coast  forms  of  duck  hawk  and 
pigeon  hawk  respectively  have  been  named  (Bull.  Ess.  lust.,  v,  201) 
as  follows : — 

343a.  PALCO  COMMUNIS  GM., 

var.  PEAT.EI  Kidg. 
Peale's  Duck  Hawk. 

344a.  PALCO  COLUMBABIUS  L., 

var.  SUCKLEYI  Ridg. 
Buckley 's  Pig-eon  Hawk. 

No.  351c.  The  authority  is  HOOPES,  Pr.  Fhila.  Acad.,  1873,  238,  pi. 
5  (Iowa). 

No.  381.  A  dark  form  of  Tetrao  obscurus,  from  Sitka,  has  lately  been 
characterized  (Bull.  Ess.  Inst.,  v,  199)  :  it  is  more  like  true  obscurus 
than  like  var.  richardsoni,  having  the  broad  terminal  slate  bar  of  the 
tail. 

381b.   TETRAO  OBSCURUS  SAY, 

var.  FULIGINOSA  (Ridg.). 
Sitkan  Dusky  Grouse. 

No.  384.  A  pale  form  of  Cupidonia,  from  Texas,  has  lately  been 
characterized  (Bull.  Ess.  Inst.,  v,  199)  :— 

384a.   CUPIDONIA  CUPIDO  (L.)  BD., 

var.  PALLIDICLNCTA  Ridg. 
Texas  Prairie  Hen. 

No.  400.  A  variety  of  this  species  is  described  by  Mr.  Ridgway, 
(Am/ Nat.,  viii,  1874,  109),  as  A.  melodus  var.  circumcinctus,  having 
the  black  pectoral  band  complete. 

400a.  JBGIALITIS  MELODUS  (ORD)  CAB., 

var.  CIRCUMCINCTUS  Ridg. 
Missouri  Piping-  Plover. 

No.  400bis.  A  new  species  of  jEgialitis  is  described  from  Sar  Fran- 
cisco by  Mr.  Ridgway  (Am.  Nat.,  viii,  1874,  109). 

400bis.  ^IGIALITIS  MICRORHYNCHUS  RIDG. 
Slender-billed  Plover. 

No.  401.  The  American  form  of  j3S.  cantianus  may  be  considered 


APPENDIX  TO   CHECK  LIST.  135 

varietally  distinct  from  the  European  (see  Ridgway,  Am.  Nat.,  viii, 
1874,  109). 

401.  JEGIALITIS  CANTIAMTTS  (LATH.), 
var.  NIVOSUS  (Cass.)  Ridgw. 
Snowy  JPlover. 

No.  402*.  As  intimated  in  the  text,  the  North  American  mountain 
plover  is  perfectly  distinct  from  the  Asiatic.  I  have  only  lately  seen  it 
in  breeding  dress :  it  has  no  black  pectoral  band,  but  a  transverse 
black  coronal  belt  and  black  loral  stripe. 

402.  EUDROMIAS  MONTANUS  (TOWNS.)  HARTING. 
Mountain  Plover. 

No.  415a.  It  is  not  necessary  to  recognize  this  even  by  varietal 
name;  " M.  scolopaceus"  being  merely  longer-billed  specimens  of  M. 
griseus,  such  as  may  be  shot  out  of  almost  any  flock  of  the  latter. 
The  range  of  variation  in  length  of  bill  is  no  greater  than  that  occur- 
ring in  Ereunetes  pusillus,  as  noted  in  the  Key,  p.  254. 

No.  442bis.  A  well  known  Pacific  curlew,  before  overlooked  in  the 
Smithsonian  collection,  was  taken  at  Fort  Renai,  Alaska,  May  18, 1869, 
by  F.  Bischoff,  and  should  be  added  to  the  last  as  a  straggler. 

[442bis.]  inJMENTUS  FEMORALIS  PEALE. 
Bristle-bellied  Curlew. 

No.  445.  According  to  Mr.  Ridgway  (Am.  Nat.,  viii,  1874,  110),  the 
ordinary  North  American  glossy  ibis  is  absolutely  identical  with  that 
of  the  Old  World.  He,  however,  finds  two  other  species  in  western 
United  States,  /.  guarauna  and  /.  thalassinus.  According  to  this 
determination  our  species  would  stand  as  follows :  — 

445.  IBIS  FALCINELLUS  AUCT. 
Glossy  Ibis. 

445bis.  IBIS  GUARATTNA  (LINN.)  RIDG. 
White-faced  Ibis. 

445ter.  IBIS  THAI.  ASBESTOS  RIDG. 
Green  Ibis. 

No.  448bis.  I  am  informed  by  Prof.  Baird  that  the  Jabiru,  of  Cen- 
tral America,  was  taken  some  years  since  at  Austin,  Texas.  It  should 
enter  the  list  as  a  straggler. 

[448bis.]  MYCTERIA  AMERICANA  L. 
Jabiru. 


APPENDIX    TO   CHECK   LIST.  137 

No.  450?   For  occasion  of  the  query  see  Key,  p.  2G7. 
No.  466.    A  pale  form  is  described  from  California.     See  Ridgway 
(Am.  Nat.,  viii,  1874,  111). 

46Ga.  RALLTTS  ELEGANS  AUD., 

var.  OBSOLETUS  Ridg. 
Califomian  Rail. 

No.  470.  A  peculiar  variety  of  the  black  rail  is  described  from  the 
Faralloues  by  Mr.  Ridgway  (Amer.  Nat.,  viii,  1874,  111). 

470a.   PORZANA  JAMAICENSIS  (GM.)  CASS., 

var.  COTURXICULUS  Bd. 
Pacific  Black  Rail. 

No.  472.  The  relationships  of  this  form  to  the  European  £.  chloropus 
require  further  investigation.  It  will  probably  stand  as 

472.    GALLINULA  CHLOROPUS  LATH., 
var.  GALEATA  (Licht.)  Hartl. 

No.  479?   Compare  Key,  p.  282. 

No.  489.  A  lighter  colored  form  of  dusky  cluck,  with  a  buff  throat,  is 
described  from  Florida  (by  Mr.  Ridgway,  I.  c.),  where  it  is  resident. 

489a.   ANAS  OBSCURA  GM., 

var.  FULVIGULA  Ridg. 
Florida™  Dusky  Duck. 

No.  493?  The  query  indicates  probability  of  only  varietal  distinction 
from  No.  492. 

No.  501  ?  The  query  indicates  probability  of  only  varietal  distinction 
from  No.  500. 

No.  575bis.  A  specimen  of  the  European  white-winged  tern,  Hydro- 
chelidon  leucoptera,  was  taken  in  Wisconsin,  July  5,  1873,  by  Th.  Kum- 
lein,  and  presented  to  the  Smithsonian  by  Dr.  Brewer  This  is  the 
flrst  instance  known  of  its  occurrence  in  this  country. 

[575bis.]   HYDROCHELIDOW  LEUCOPTERA  (MEis.)  BOIK. 
White-wiiig-ed  Slack  Tern. 

CHECK  LIST  BIRDS.          9* 


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